
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

ITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 

Water-supply Paper 339 



QUALITY OF THE SURFACE WATERS 
OF WASHINGTON 



BY 



WALTON VAN WINKLE 



Prepared in cooperation wiih the State Board of Health of "Waahington 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PEINTINQ OPFIOB 

1914 




> 






^ DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water- StjppIjY Paper 339 



t 



QUALITY OF THE SURFACE WATERS 
OF WASHINGTON ^^^, 



BY 



WALTON VAN WINKLE 



Prepared in cooperation with the State Board of Health of "Washington 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1914 



d: of 0, 

JUL 30 ill 



Oy^ 






^ 



V. CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Outline of investigation 7 

Acknowledgments 8 

Natural features of Washington 9 

Location and extent 9 

Topography 9 

Drainage 10 

Rivers 10 

Lakes 12 

Creology 12 

Rocks 12 

Soils 13 

Climate 13 

Economic features 15 

Population 15 

Agriculture ,15 

Manufactures and commercial industries 16 

Natural waters 17 

Constituents 17 

Uses of water 18 

Varieties of use. . : 18 

Domestic use 18 

Boiler water 19 

Corrosion 19 

Formation of scale 20 

Foaming 21 

Factory waters 22 

Chief industries affected 22 

Breweries 22 

Paper mills 23 

Wool scouring, bleaching, and dyeing works 24 

Laundries 24 

Other industries 25 

Purification of water 25 

Filtration 25 

Types of filters 25 

Slow sand filtration 25 

Rapid sand filtration 26 

Sterilization 28 

Softening 29 

Methods of analysis 31 

Interpretation of the results of analysis 31 

Industrial interpretation 31 

Geochemical interpretation 33 

Skagit River 35 

General features of drainage basin 35 

Character of the water 36 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Wood Creek 39 

General features of drainage basin 39 

Character of the water 39 

Cedar Eiver 40 

General features of drainage basin 40 

Character of the water 42 

Green Kiver 45 

General features of drainage basin 45 

Character of the water 45 

Chehalis River 46 

General features of drainage basin 46 

Chehalis Hiver at Centralia 47 

Character of the water 47 

Wynoochee Hiver 51 

General features of drainage basin 51 

Character of the water. 52 

Columbia Hiver basin. 52 

General features 52 

Spokane Biver 54 

General features of drainage basin 54 

Character of the water 55 

Okanogan Hiver 57 

General features of drainage basin 57 

Character of the water 58 

Wenatchee Biver 60 

General features of drainage basin 60 

Character of the water 60 

Yakima Biver 63 

General features of drainage basin 63 

Naches Biver 64 

General features of drainage basin 64 

Character of the water 64 

Yakima Biver at Clealum 66 

General features 66 

Character of the water 66 

Yakima Biver at Prosser 69 

General features 69 

Character of the water 69 

Snake Biver 72 

General features of drainage basin 72 

Character of the water 73 

Klickitat Biver 77 

General features of drainage basin 77 

Character of the water 78 

Columbia Biver at Northport , 80 

General features 80 

Character of the water 80 

Columbia Biver at Pasco 83 

General features 83 

Character of the water 84 

Columbia Biver at Cascade Locks 86 

General features 86 

Character of the water 87 



CONTENTS. 5 

Page. 

Average chemical composition of river water 93 

Economic value of the*rivera 96 

Denudation 98 

Influence of natural features 100 

Precipitation 100 

Wind-borne material 100 

Forestation 101 

Character of the rocks 101 

Conclusion 102 

Index - 103 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Map of Washington showing principal natural features 7 

II. Map of Washington showing drainage and location of sampling sta- 
tions 8 

Figure 1. Diagram showing relative amounts of dissolved and suspended mate- 
rial carried by rivers of Washington 94 



U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH , DIRECTOR 



PAPER 339 PLATE 1 



125 



124' 



il7^ 




A-B.;?JSHA.< •:0.-:V«.V'ASH.i 



MAP OW M 



QUALITY OF THE SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



By Walton Van Winkle. 



OUTIilNE OF INVESTIGATION. 

The value of water for any particular use is determined by the nature 
and amount of the material it holds in suspension and solution — 
that is, its quahty. Water for drinking must be free from poisonous 
chemicals or disease-producing organisms and from excessive amounts 
of dissolved materials ; preferably it should be clear, odorless, color- 
less, and palatable. Water for cleansing should be soft and should 
be free from large amounts of iron in order not to cause waste of soap 
or spots and stains on clothing. Water for steam generation should 
not contain materials that form excessive deposits of scale or that 
corrode the boilers. Water for industrial processes should not con- 
tain substances which will combine with the raw material or with 
the 'bleaches or dyes to the injiu'y of the finished product or the waste 
of materials of manufacture. 

Analyses of ''spot samples" of water are often misleading, espe- 
cially of samples collected in regions of sHght rainfall or marked 
seasonal variations in precipitation. The data obtained by study 
of many samples systematically collected over long periods, however, 
are not only locally important, affording essential information to 
municipaUties and manufacturers, but they are also scientifically 
valuable, as they illuminate many problems of physiography, chemi- 
cal denudation, and geochemistry. 

Late in 1909 the United States Geological Survey and the State 
Board of Health of Washington began a cooperative study of the qual- 
ity of the surface waters of the State of Washington, including their 
seasonal variation in composition and in physical characteristics, 
and the pollution to which they are subject. 

No systematic study of the quahty of the surface waters of Wash- 
ington had previously been made, though miscellaneous analyses 
of water from a few lakes and rivers have been published in periodi- 
cals or in special reports to municipalities, and analyses of serial 
samples of water from Salmon and Palouse rivers were made by the 
United States Reclamation Service in 1905.^ 



1 stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of the western United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 274, pp. 80, 111, 1911. 

7 



WATEFi-SUFPLY PAPER 339 PLATE I 




MAP OF WASHINGTON SHOWING PRINCIPAL NATURAL FEATURES 



Scale 2,500.000 

25 50 75 lOOlNIiles 



8 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEBS OF WASHINGTON. 



The bacteriologic work of the investigation was done by the State 
Board of Health, the chemical work by the United States Geological 
Survey, and the field expenses were shared by both organizations. 
The writer was detailed to perform the chemical and field work under 
the direction of R. B. Dole, chemist of the water-resources branch of 
the Geological Survey. 

The chemical determinations were made at the city hall at Seattle 
in a room procured through the courtesy of Mr. Thompson, the city 
engineer, until March, 1910, when, in response to an invitation from 
the University of Washington, the laboratory was moved into quar- 
ters in the chemistry building of that university. 

In the chemical work the writer was assisted during the greater 
part of the time by Mr. McClintock Taylor. 

Sampling stations were estabHshed at certain points, from which 
daily samples of water were forwarded to the laboratory during the 
periods indicated by the dates. Each of the stations, except that 
at Okanogan and that near Montesano, was inspected from time to 
time by the writer. The stations are listed below and their locations 
are shown on Plate II. 

Instructions in collecting and plating bacteriologic samples were 
given the collectors at aU places except Okanogan, but the results of 
the bacteriologic investigations, which were conducted by Dr. E. P. 
Pick, bacteriologist of the State Board of Health, have not been 
included in this report. 

Sampling stations on streams in Washington. 



Stream. 



Sampling point. 



Collections. 



Begun. Discontinued 



Cedar River , 

Chehalis River 

Columbia River. . 

Do 

Do 

Green River 

Klickitat River... 

Naehes River 

Okanogan River., 

Skagit River 

Snake River 

Spokane River 

Wenatchee River. 

Wood Creek 

Wynoochee River, 

Yakima River 

Do 



Gaging station at Seattle intake near Ravensdale. 

Bridge above Centralia 

Ferry, Northiwrt 

Waterworks intake, Pasco 



Above rapids at Cascade Locks 

Bridge near hotel, Hot Springs 

Gaging station near railroad station, Klickitat . 

Power house near Naches 

Near Okanogan 

North Pacific Ry. bridge near Sedro Woolley. 

North Pacific Ry. bridge near Burbank 

Bridge above Spokane 

Bend between gaging station and Cashmere. . 

Inlet into city reservoir, Everett 

Fry's camp, 20 miles above Montesano 

100 yards below wagon bridge at Clealum. . . . . 
Flouring mill above Prosser 



Feb. 1, 1910 

....do 

Jan. 22,1910 
2. 1910 
2, 1910 
13, 1910 
1, 1910 
1, 1910 

....do 

....do 

Mar. 31,1910 
Feb. 1, 1911 
Mar. 13,1910 
Feb. 1, 1910 
do 



/Feb. 
\May 
rMar. 
\Aug. 
Feb. 



Mar. 13,1910 
July 17,1910 
Feb. 1, 1910 
Aug. 20,1910 



Jan. 31,1911 

Do. 

Do. 
Apr. 21,1910 
Jan. 31,1911 
Dec. 31,1910 
Aug. 14,1912 
Aug. 18,1910 
Jan. 31,1911 
June 30,1910 
Jan. 16,1911 
Jan. 31,1911 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Aug. 19,1910 
Jam 31,19U 

Do. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 



Thanks are due especially to the officials of the University of Wash- 
ington, particularly to Dr. Thomas H. Kane, president of the univer- 
sity, and to Dr. H, G. Byers, director of the chemical laboratories, for 




>r , W. T 




(lTIONS ajn 



60 



70 Mile 

=3 



U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
OEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 339 PLATE I 




<''"0m U.S. Land Office map 



■^IF OF WASHINGTON SHOWING SAMPLING STATIONS AND DRAINAGE BASH 



Boundary of drainage basins •Sampling station 



Scale 1.500,000 nn Miles 

10 10 20 30 40 5Q ^ d 



NATUEAL FEATURES OF WASHINGTON. 9 

furnishing laboratory space, fuel, light, and water; and to Mr. Thomp, 
son, city engineer of Seattle, and to the engineer in charge of tests- 
Mr. C. Moore. The hearty cooperation of Dr. A. P. Duryee, of Ever- 
ett; Mr. A. B. Youngs, of Seattle; Dr. B. M. Grieve, of Spokane; 
and Mr. Charles Ewarts, of Aberdeen, rendered possible the collection 
of samples from Wood Creek, Cedar River, Spokane River, and 
Wynoochee River. The serial samples at Okanogan were collected 
by an employee of the United States Reclamation Service, through 
the kindness of Christian Anderson, project engineer. 

The writer has drawn freely on the geologic reports of the Washing- 
ton Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey for 
information regarding the geology of the State, and on the publica- 
tions of the United States Weather Bureau for information regarding 
climate and precipitation. He wishes to extend special thanks to Air. 
Henry Landes, State geologist, for valuable personal assistance in 
matters pertaining to local geology, and to Messrs. J. C. Stevens and 
F. F. Henshaw, of the district office of the United States Geological 
Survey in Portland, Greg., for assistance in obtaining records of 
stream discharge. 

NATURAL FEATURES OF "WASHINGTON. 

LOCATION AND EXTENT. 

The State of Washington, occupying the extreme northwest corner 
of the continental United States, exclusive of Alaska, extends from 
latitude 46° to 49° north (see PI. I) and longitude 40° to 47° 30' 
west from Washington meridian and comprises an area of 69,127 
square miles, of which 2,291 square miles is water.^ Its land surface 
is therefore greater than the combined areas of the New England 
States and nearly as great as that of the New England States and 
New Jersey or of Missouri. The water surface includes much of 
Puget Sound and a nimaber of small lakes. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The most prominent feature of relief in Washington is the Cascade 
Range, which crosses the State from north to south and divides it 
into two regions of dissimilar climate — to the west a region of 
abundant rainfall, cool summers, and mild winters, and to the east a 
region of moderate or scanty rainfall, hot summers, and cold though 
not severe winters. Viewed from a point below the 6,000-foot level, 
the Cascade Range appears to form a series of jagged peaks, but a 
view from a simamit reveals the fact that all the peaks are remnants 
of a long plateau, perhaps 50 miles wide, and that the valleys have 
resulted from stream and glacial erosion. Probably eveiy observer 

» Gannett, Henry, The areas of the United States, the States, and the Territories: U. S. Qeol. Survey 
BuU. 302, p. 8, 1906. 



10 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON, 

who has crossed these mountains has noticed this fact and many have 
recorded it in their published descriptions. Most of the mountain 
tops are 5,500 to 6,000 feet above sea level, although isolated peaks 
rise to much greater heights. Mount Rainier, the highest .in the 
State (altitude 14,364 feet), is not one of the peaks of the Cascades 
but is an extinct volcano resting on the western slope of the range. 
Mount Baker, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams are also flanking 
volcanic peaks and are not integral parts of the range. 

West of the Cascade Range and at its base is a long troughlike 
valley the northern part of which is submerged and forms Puget 
Sound. This valley is separated from the coastal plain on the south- 
west by a low divide called the Coast Range, which is one of the minor 
topographic features of the State. 

The Olympic Mountains, their peaks capped by perpetual snow, 
rise abruptly from the western edge of Puget Soiuid. These moun- 
tains, hke those of the Cascade Range, are remnants of a high plateau, 
now deeply dissected and eroded ; and, Hke the Cascades, they reveal 
their original form only from their summits. Their average eleva- 
tion above sea level is more than 6,500 feet, but individual peaks 
attain altitudes of 9,000 feet and more. Their slopes are steep and 
in many places precipitous, and the short, steep valleys leading from 
their uplands contain torrential streams of considerable size. 

The eastern slopes of the Cascade Mountains merge at their base 
into the Columbia River plains, which occupy the eastern part of the 
State. These plains appear practically level to the casual observer, 
but in reahty they rise gently eastward and southeastward untU they 
merge into the foothills of the Blue Mountains of Oregon. The east- 
ern and southern parts of the plaius are rolling prairie land and con- 
stitute the wheat belt of Washington. The plains are cut in all 
directions by canyons of living or ancient streams. Snake River 
traverses the whole width of the plains in Washington in a canyon 
whose walls are in most places nearly perpendicular cliffs and whose 
average depth is 2,000 feet. Between upper Columbia River and the 
Cascade Range are the Okanogan highlands. 

DRAINAGE. 
RIVERS. 

The drainage of the State passes to the Pacific through Columbia 
River, streams tributary to Puget Sound, and minor coastal streams. 

Columbia River, the principal river of Washington, receives the 
drainage of the entire State east of the Cascade Range and of a 
narrow strip in the southwestern part. The area of its basin in 
Washington comprises 48,000 square miles, or 18.5 per cent of the 
total area drained by the river, the rest of which is in Oregon, Idaho, 



ISTATURAL FEATURES OF WASHINGTON. 11 

Montana, and Canada. It includes Avithin its boundaries all varie- 
ties of topography. The rugged, eroded slopes of the Cascades 
border it on the west; the lower ranges of the Okanogan highlands, 
with their deeply gouged glacial troughs, form its northern border; 
the rolling prairies of the eastern Washington '^Palouse country" 
and the level Columbia plains comprise its eastern portion; and the 
short, narrow valleys of the Khckitat region and the gently sloping, 
mature valleys of the CowUtz and Kalama region characterize its 
southern portion. The territory between Cascade Mountains and 
Columbia River contains wide, fertile, mountain-girt valleys that 
form the chief apple-growing section of the State. The cHmate of 
the basin is as diversified as its topography. The plains are hot in 
summer, but not very cold in winter; but the roUing uplands skirt- 
ing them are subjected to both hot summers and cold winters. The 
valleys bordering the Cascades are characterized by warm summers 
and cold winters and on the higher elevations of the Cascades the 
climate is extremely rigorous. Rainfall is copious in the summit 
region of the Cascades, but decreases eastward until it amounts to 
only 5 or 6 inches a year in the lower portions of the Columbia 
plains. It is greater in the eastern section and in the Okanogan 
highlands and Blue Mountain region, but is still inadequate for full 
agricultural development. Much of the drainage area is treeless 
and forests are confined to the mountainous portions. The principal 
tributaries of the Columbia River in Washington are Snake River, 
the largest, and ColviUe, Spokane, Okanogan, Methow, Chelan, 
Wenatchee, Yakima, Khckitat, Lewis, Kalama, and Cowhtz rivers. 

Most of the rivers rising on the western slopes of the Cascades 
flow into Puget Sound. Many of these are short and relatively 
unimportant, but some, such as Skagit River, are of considerable 
magnitude. The streams draining the eastern and northern slopes 
of the Olympic Mountains also flow into Puget Sound. These are 
aU short and swift and afford many power sites. Precipitation is 
abundant throughout the area draining to Puget Sound except along 
the northern shore of the sound itself, which receives an exceedingly 
low rainfall. The cUmate is moderate, the summers being cool and 
the winters mild. Sunshine is not abundant; the sky in summer is 
often obscured by haze or by smoke from forest fires and in winter 
is overcast by clouds. Forests cover most of the uplands of the basin. 

The minor coastal streams drain a narrow strip of country extend- 
ing from the Straits of Juan de Fuca to the mouth of the Columbia. 
The only large stream in this area is Chehalis River. Other rivers of 
the region are the Soleduck, Hoh, Queets, and Queniult, draining 
the western slopes of the Olympic Mountains, and Willapa River, 
draining the Coast Range. Rainfall in this strip is copious and the 
climate is mild. Much of the area is forested. 



12 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

Two periods of high water are usual, one in spring or early summer 
and the other in late autumn or early winter. The floods in spring 
usually last longer, but those in winter are commonly more violent. 
When rain and melting snow are concomitant, freshets are sure to be 
severe. A southerly chinook wind on the Cascades, especially if it is 
accompanied by a rainstorm and follows a period of heavy snowfall, 
causes destructive floods that at times have paralyzed traflS.c across 
the Cascade Mountains for days. The landslides that sometimes 
accompany sudden thaws on the slopes of the Cascades have caused 
great loss of life and property. 

LAKES. 

Lake Chelan occupies a glacial trough 48 miles long and about 1 
mile wide, extending southeastward from the Cascade Range in the 
northern part of the State. Its water surface is 1,080 feet above sea 
level. This lake is perhaps one of the most picturesque in America. 
Other lakes, mostly small, lie in the Okanogan highlands. The water 
of many of them is brackish, and that of some, according to available 
information, contains large amounts of sodium sulphate. 

The beds of the coulees in the Big Bend region contain several small 
and a few large lakes. Many of these '4akes^' are really playas or 
intermittent shallow pools; some are fresh and fill widenings of the 
channels of the small streams flowing through the coulees ; others are 
alkaline sinks or residual lakes with no outlet. Moses, Alkali, and 
Freshwater lakes in Grand Coulee, and Tule, Sylvan, Pacific, and Crab 
lakes in Crab Creek coulee are the best known. All contain carbonate 
water. 

Rock Lake and Colville Lake are situated in the eastern part of the 
State. The Olympic Mountains contain two principal lakes, Queniult 
and Crescent. The latter is growing in popularity as a summer resort 
for residents of the cities around Puget Sound. Silver Lake, in 
Cowlitz Basin, is the only important lake in the southern part of the 
State. The region of glacial drift around Puget Sound contains many 
fresh-water lakes. Lake Washington and Lake Union, the former 
bordering and the latter within the city of Seattle, may be mentioned. 

GEOLOGY. 

ROCKS. 

The geology of Washington in general has been studied by several 
writers, and selected areas have been investigated in considerable 
detail. The following statements have been drawn from the pub- 
lished writings of many authors, to whom credit is hereby given: 
Paleozoic gneisses and schists with some limestones and granites are 
abundant in the Okanogan highlands and give place southward to 
the basalt of Miocene age. The formations of the Olympic Moun- 



STATURAL FEATURES OF WASHINGTON. 13 

tains include met amorphic rocks of Jurassic age encircled by Upper 
Cretaceous sediments that along the coast are covered by late Ter- 
tiary sediments. The core of the mountain mass is granitic. 

The Cascade Kange is a buge uplifted mass of great length and 
width. The core, at least in the northern portion, is composed of 
granites and granodiorites, in large areas flanked by Paleozoic and 
later metamorphic rocks — schists, gneisses, and serpentines. In the 
middle section of the range andesitic and basaltic formations are 
fomid in contact with the Mocene basalt of Columbia River and with 
various Tertiary sediments and metamorphic rocks. The rocks of 
the southern section are largely basaltic. 

The plains of Columbia and Snake rivers and the Blue Mountain 
uplift are covered with the Mocene basalt, overlain in part by the 
later Miocene sediments of the Ellensburg formation. 

The Puget Soimd trough is filled to a depth of several hundred 
feet with Quaternary glacial deposits, but in the eastern borders 
Eocene and Mocene sedimentary formations are exposed. 

SOILS. 

The soils of eastern Washington are eoUan, or wind borne, and 
residual, derived by decay from underlying rocks. They are ex- 
tremely fertile and produce excellent crops imder cultivation. Ac- 
cording to Calkins * the eohan soils, which predominate and are very 
thick, are light colored, very friable silty loams of fine, open texture. 
The residual soils from basalt are darker, and in many places angular 
pieces of basalt are mingled with the fine loam. 

The soils of the intermountain valleys are sands, sandy loams, or 
clays in the southern and central sections and stony, gravelly, or 
sandy soUs in the northern, glaciated sections. 

The soils of the western region are largely glacial detritus — gravels 
or sandy loams. The southern part of the coastal region is overlain 
by silty clay loams and silty loams derived from the Tertiary sand- 
stones and shales. Many of the glacial soils are poor in nitrogen, 
and their enrichment through the growth of leguminous plants 
greatly aids production of crops. The deficiency of plant food and 
organic matter is due both to the origin of the soils and to the exces- 
sive leaching they have undergone. 

CLIMATE .2 

Qf the two unequal areas into which the Cascade Range divides 
the State, the western is a region of abundant rainfall, cool summers, 
and mild winters, and is for the most part covered by forests of 

1 Calkins, F. C, Geology and water resources of a portion of east-central Washington: U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-supply Paper 118, p. 45, 1905. 

2 Abstracted from Climatology of the United States, by A. J. Henry: U. S. Weather Bur. Bull. Q, 
p. 926, 1906. 



14 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

gigantic evergreens; the eastern is a region of moderate or scanty 
rainfall, hot summers, and cold but not severe winters, and the 
greater part of it is treeless. 

To say that the normal annual temperature of the State is 49.3° 
F. and the normal annual precipitation 37.1 inches is to give informa- 
tion that, though correctly deduced, is almost wholly valueless for 
any particular locahty. Only one broad generahzation can safely be 
made: The area west of the Cascade Eange is wet and that east of 
it is dry. Greater accuracy requires the subdivision of the wet sec- 
tion into a moist and a very wet area, and the dry section into semi- 
arid and arid. The wet section Hes between the ocean and the sum- 
mits of the Coast Range and Olympic Mountains. Its annual rain- 
fall is 60 to 120 inches, and 75 per cent of this occurs during the 
so-caUed ^'wet season,'^ from November to April. In the semiarid 
area, comprising the eastern and northern portions of the State, the 
annual precipitation as rain and snow is 12 to 25 inches. The very 
dry or arid area, in the central portion of the State east of the 
Cascades, receives annually less than 12 inches of rain and snow. 

The climate of the coastal strip is almost marine, except occasion- 
ally when winds blow from inland at the time cold waves of great 
intensity are overspreading Alberta, British Columbia, and Montana. 
The mean annual temperature is 47° to 51°. The normal tempera- 
ture in January is 36° to 42°, in April 46° to 49°, in July 57° to 63°, 
and in October 48° to 55°. The temperature has never been lower 
than 10° above zero at Aberdeen. It almost never exceeds 90°, and 
is below freezing only about 40 times a year. 

The cHmate in the Puget Soimd basin is somewhat similar to that 
of the coastal strip in mean annual and monthly range of tempera- 
ture, but it is greatly modified by cold and warm winds coming across 
the Cascade Mountains. The rainstorms that are so frequent in 
winter have about the temperature of the sea in this latitude, and 
hence the rainy days in winter are very mild. During dry spells in 
winter the air is sharp and frosty, as it either is coming from the region 
east of the Cascade Mountains or is a descensional current from an 
anticyclonic area which is central over Puget Sound. The extremes 
of temperature recorded for the region are 102° (at Centralia) and 6° 
btlow zero (at Blaine). 

The climate east of the Cascades is essentially continental, although 
it is undoubtedly modified by storms and by air currents from the 
sea. There is a great diversity and range of temperature as well 
as rainfall. Stevens and Douglas counties, the former in extreme 
northeastern and the latter in central Washington, are the coldest. 
The annual average temperature in Stevens County is 44° to 46°, 
ranging from 20° in January to 68° in July. In the country around 
Spokane the temperature ranges from about 24° in January to 68° 



ECONOMIC FEATURES. 15 

in July. At Spokane 30° below zero and 104° above zero have been 
recorded. Winters in tbe settled part of Kittitas County are cold 
but not severe except for an occasional cold snap lasting a few days. 
The summers are short and sometimes hot. In all the southeast 
counties the simamers are hot and the winters are mild, with Uttle 
snowfall except in the mountains and only short periods of moder- 
ately cold weather. In the region about Lake Chelan and in the 
vaUey of Okanogan River the winters are phenomenally mild. 

The dominant wind for the year over the Puget Sound basin is 
southerly; along the coast it is south to west; these are the rain- 
producing winds. The northerly and easterly winds are, for the most 
part, dry. In summer the winds are very moderate. The prevailing 
winds east of the Cascades are from the southwest, though local 
topography in Wenatchee and Yakima valleys make the direction 
northwest. Occasionally during summer hot desiccating winds, inju- 
rious to crops, blow from the north and east over the plains of the 
eastern division. Hailstorms sometimes occur, but they are almost 
invariably light and do little damage except to fruit. ^^ Dust storms," 
so-called, occasionally occur in the Walla Walla, Snake Eiver, and 
Yakima valleys, but they are more disagreeable than injurious. 

ECONOMIC FEATURES. 

POPULATION. 

The United States census of 1910 gave the population of Wash- 
ington as 1,141,990, the increase since 1900 having been 120.4 per 
cent. That more than half the inhabitants now dwell in only 27 
cities indicates the wonderful industrial and commercial growth of 
the State in recent years. More than one-fifth of the people reside in 
two counties bordering on Puget Sound and comprising only 5.7 per 
cent of the total area of the State. Increase in rural population has 
been marked and well distributed. Spokane, Walla Walla, and 
North Yakima, three of the seven largest cities of the State, are pri- 
marily agricultural centers, and the density of rural population in 
the counties in which they lie is from 5.5 to 18.1 persons per square 
mile of land. Future development wiU probably result in a generally 
increased rural population, but in a much more largely increased 
urban population, for manufacturing and commerce will undoubtedly 
lead agriculture. 

AGRICXrLTTIRE.i 

Washington is divided by differences in rainfall, temperature, and 
soils into three great agricultural provinces. The western part of 
the State, from the Cascade Range to the ocean, produces vegetables 

I All figures from the Thirteeath Census of the United States, 1910. 
33476°— wsp 339—14 2 



16 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 

and other crops that require much moisture. The intermountain 
country, the valleys of the Okanogan highlands, and the uplands of 
the Spokane country form the apple belt, in which prunes, cherries, 
and other fruits also are raised. The Columbia plains and the foot- 
hills of the Blue Mountains are the wheat and cattle regions. Lin- 
coln, Whitman, Adams, Walla Walla, Douglas, Grant, Franklin, and 
Spokane counties produce seven-eighths of the entire wheat crop, 
which in 1911 was 50,000,000 bushels. Stevens, Spokane, and Whit- 
man counties produce one-fifth of all the hay and forage. Barley is 
grown principally in Columbia, Garfield, Walla Walla, Whitman, and 
Lincoln counties. Spokane County produces the most potatoes, but 
each county produces good crops of this vegetable. Corn growing 
is confined to the counties east of the Cascades, and hop raising is 
practiced almost exclusively in Yakima County. Yakima and We- 
natchee valleys and the extreme eastern part of the State produce 
most of the orchard fruits. 

Much of the orchard and farm land must be irrigated; indeed, 
irrigation is practiced on 13.6 per cent of all the farms in the State, 
and the acreage is rapidly being increased. The United States 
Keclamation Service has placed under irrigation 55,690 acres, the 
Indian Service 35,000 acres, and corporate, cooperative, or indi- 
vidual enterprises 243,688 acres. Several large irrigation projects 
are in course of construction and others are contemplated, so that 
large additions to these acreages will soon be made. 

MANUTACTUBES AND COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIE S.i 

Washington is the chief lumber-producing State in the Union, and 
making or handling wood or its products constitutes nearly half of 
the conmiercial activity of the State. The total amount sawed in 
1910 was 4,097,492 thousand feet board measure.^ This lumber was 
used rough, dressed, or as boards, posts, cordwood, and shingles. 
The amount of standing timber is, however, at the present time less 
than in Oregon, whose production is only slightly more than half that 
of Washington. The standing timber in Washington is chiefly in 
private ownership, as is shown by the following table: 

Ownership of standing timber in Washington. 

[Billion feet board measure.] 

Private 294. 6 

National forests 81. 6 

AU other -.. 14.8 

Flour and grist milling, slaughtering and meat packing, canning 
and preserving, and printing and publishing are other leading indus- 

1 All figures from Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, unless otherwise noted. 

' Statistical abstract of the United States, Dept. Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Statistics, p. 167, 1911. 



NATURAL WATERS. 17 

tries. Minor industries of the State include the production of malt 
liquors, leather goods, food preparations, and ice. The fisheries 
employ nearly 5,000 men, 190 vessels, and 2,800 small boats. Salmon 
and oysters are the chief products. 

The lumber industry, by its sawdust waste and the soda refuse of 
its pulp mills; the leather industry, through its waste liquors; and 
the wool industry, through its scouring and dye liquors, affect the 
quality of the stream waters and thereby alter their economic value 
for municipal and industrial use. Proper protective legislation 
should regulate the disposal of the wastes of these industries. 

NATURAL WATERS. 

CONSTITUENTS. 

Even rain, the purest natural water, contains appreciable amounts 
of organic and inorganic material, both in solution and in suspension. 
Rain falling near the seacoast contains more or less dissolved salt that 
is drawn up from the ocean with the water vapor — a fact that has 
been utiHzed in the study of pollution of surface waters near coasts by 
determining the quantity of chlorine carried by normal unpolluted 
waters.^ Charts indicating the amount of chlorine brought down in 
rain can then be prepared by plotting the results of such determina- 
tions and connecting points at which equal amounts are found, thus 
establishing lines of equal chlorine (isochlors). Abnormalities 
resulting from human pollution can be discovered by comparing 
analyses of other surface waters with these charts. 

But isochlors are useful only near the coast in humid regions not 
containing chloride-bearing rocks, and they are of doubtful value in 
regions of great seasonal variation of rainfall. Streams flowing 
through arid regions contain relatively large amounts of chlorides 
left after incomplete leaching of the sedimentary rocks, and though 
the amount of native chlorine may be sUght where the rocks are 
mostly volcanic or plu tonic unpolluted waters may be high in 
chlorine because of concentration of ^'cycHc'^ or wind-borne chlorine 
by evaporation. 

Carbon dioxide and oxygen, the important gases dissolved in rain- 
water, are powerful agents of solution and oxidation, and the water 
containing them, having reached the earth, begins at once to acquire 
a further charge of dissolved matter. The carbon dioxide already 
present is augmented by that produced by the decay of vegetable 
matter on the surface of the ground or in the soil. Silica and the 
rock silicates are practically insoluble in pure water, but hydrated 
silicates are easily decomposed in weak solutions of carbonic acid, and 

> Jackson, D. D., The normal distribution of chlorine in the natural waters of New York and New Eng- 
land: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 144, 1905. 



18 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

'' quartz is attacked and dissolved by prolonged digestion in even 
dilute alkaline carbonate solutions. "* Silicate rocks are thus broken 
down by the action of water bearing carbon dioxide, and silica and 
alkalies are dissolved. The dissolved carbonic acid also attacks any 
hmestone with which it comes into contact, for although calcium 
carbonate is only shghtly soluble in pure water it goes readily into 
solution in the presence of carbonic acid, probably as calcium bicar- 
bonate. 

Direct solution, hydrolysis, and double decomposition all aid in 
bringing other materials into solution. Many secondary rocks, such as 
gypsum, enter directly into solution, and limestone may be dissolved 
by interaction Avith alkali sulphates. 

All elements are soluble in water to some extent, but relatively 
few are found in appreciable amounts in natural waters. The im- 
portant materials usually found are siHca, iron, alumina, calcium, 
magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, 
chlorides, nitrates, and organic matter. 

USES OF WATER. 
VARIETIES OF USE. 

Water is of general and diversified use in the industries. It is 
used directly to furnish power, to transport heat or materials, or to 
perform an essential part in some processes of production, and 
indirectly to produce power through steam or electricity. Some idea 
of the magnitude of the indirect use, which during recent years has 
been the greater, may be gained by considering that a stationary 
boiler requires approximately 10 pounds of water an hour to furnish 
1 horsepower to a triple-expansion condensing engine, and a boiler 
for a noncondensing engine, such as a locomotive, requires almost 
twice that amount. Few engines, however, are operated with so little 
water; the more modern and larger condensing engines waste an 
insignificant amount, but the older and smaller engines use many 
times the amount theoretically necessary. 

DOMESTIC USE. 

Drinking water must be free from suspended or dissolved matter 
which may endanger health or which may render it unpalatable. 
Even a small amount of iron gives a disagreeable taste to water and 
injures the quality of tea and coffee by combining with the steep 
hquors of the beverages to produce inks. The presence of sodium 
chloride in water in amounts greater than 400 parts per million can 
be detected by taste by most persons, and water containing more than 

' Lunge and Millberg, Zeitschr. angew. Chemie, 1897, pp. 390, 425. Cited by Chase Palmer in The 
geochemical interpretation of water analyses: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 479, p. 23, 1911. 



I^ATUEAL WATEES. 19 

1,000 parts per million would be palatable to few. The use of water 
containing large amounts of sulphates tends to produce unpleasant 
laxative effects. The esthetic quality of water used for drinking is 
also important, and for this reason it should be clear, colorless, and 
odorless. Suspended matter not only renders water esthetically 
unattractive but clogs pipes and valves, reduces the capacity of 
reservoirs, stains clothes, and produces sludge in boilers. For domes- 
tic uses other than cooking and drinking water should be soft, as hard 
water increases the consumption of soap by forming insoluble com- 
nounds that react with the alkaline earths it contains. Hard water 
and water containing iron also spot and *'rust" clothing washed in it. 

BOILER WATER. 

Water used for generating steam should be examined for the pur- 
pose of forecasting and preventing corrosion, which seriously shortens 
the Hf e of a boiler, and the deposition of scale, which lowers materially 
the economy of heat transference. The prevention of foaming in the 
boUer, important in some places, need not be considered in using 
most of the surface waters of the Pacific Northwest. 

CORROSION. 

The corrosion or slow solution of a metal manifests -itself in boilers 
as pitting or grooving. As no metal is absolutely insoluble in water, 
a small, perhaps inappreciable, amount will be dissolved even under 
ideal conditions. Severe corrosion is caused by the action of acids or, 
if the boiler metal is nonhomogeneous, by the electrolytic action due 
to the effect of salt solutions. Severe corrosion due to the presence of 
organic matter or dissolved gases capable of producing acids, or to 
the depolarizing effect of dissolved oxygen, may occur even with 
waters of low mineral content. The substances that cause corrosion 
are: (1) Dissolved carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, or similar 
gases; (2) dissolved oxygen; (3) organic matters — ^particularly or- 
ganic oils — that produce organic acids by decomposition; (4) dis- 
solved mineral acids; (5) dissolved salts of acid reaction or dissolved 
salts that are decomposed by heat freeing an acid, such as calcium 
nitrate, aluminum or copper sulphate, magnesium chloride, and more 
rarely calcium chloride or magnesium sulphate; and (6) dissolved 
alkali or other salts that undergo hydrolysis. 

Corrosion may be inhibited by allowing a thin fibn of scale to be 
deposited in the boiler, by increasing the alkalinity of the water — - 
particularly by means of soda ash — by preheating to remove dissolved 
gases, by generating an electric current to keep the iron of the boiler 
electropositive, and by making the boiler shell of absolutely pure 
homogeneous metal. Each method is effective under proper condi- 
tions, but the means to be employed should be adopted after a study 



20 QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

of the causes and the resultant economy. Thus far, however, it has 
been impracticable to make boilers of pure homogeneous metal. 

Stabler's formula^ is useful for ascertaining the approximate tend- 
ency of the dissolved solids in a water to produce corrosion. This 
formula can not be applied haphazard to the soft waters of Washing- 
ton, as corrosion with them is less likely to be caused by dissolved 
soUd material than by dissolved gases or by acids produced by decom- 
position of organic matter. The computed corrosion factor for such 
waters as those of Cedar River is misleading, unless it be understood 
that it refers only to preheated water and that sufficient soda ash 
may have to be introduced to counteract the effect of organic acids. 
The amount of carbonate in solution in many surface waters of Wash- 
ington is probably sufficient to prevent corrosion from such cause. 

FORMATION OF SCALE. 

Formation of scale is the deposition of material within the boiler, 
either by sedimentation of suspended matter or by precipitation of 
dissolved matter. The scale may vary from soft muck to hard, 
crystalhne, closely adhering incrustations. Any material that is 
neither corrosive nor volatile will, when present in sufficiently large 
quantity, form scale, but as the more soluble substances, such as 
salts of the alkahes, for example, do not become sufficiently concen- 
trated to be deposited, scale usually comprises only compounds of 
the alkaline earths, suspended matter, and colloidal matter. 

The mineral matter in the surface waters of Washington is com- 
posed largely of siHca, clay, and organic detritus, which is deposited 
as more or less adherent crust. The colloidal material includes siHca, 
iron, aluminum, and organic materials. Silicon may be present as 
a siUcate radicle in some waters, but it is usually considered to be 
entirely colloidal silica (SiOg). Deposits of it from most waters are 
insignificant, but where it forms a large proportion of the scale- 
forming material as in the waters of Washington it produces a hard, 
strongly adherent incrustation, very troublesome and dangerous, and 
removable only with great difficulty. Iron and aluminum are de- 
posited mostly as hydrates which are converted by heat into oxides, 
although they may be precipitated as basic salts. They are usually 
unimportant, but where aluminum sulphate is used as a coagulant 
in water purification an excess of the reagent hydrolyzing in the 
boiler may cause precipitation of the hydrate and the formatioji of 
a strongly corrosive sulphuric acid. Organic matter, especially that 
of an oily nature, is dangerous, as it either hydrolyzes and corrodes 
the metal of the boiler or is deposited as a hard varnish-Hke coating 
that renders the boiler walls liable to overheating. 

1 stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of the western United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 274, p. 173, 1911. 



NATURAL WATERS. 21 

The chief scale-forming ingrediejit of most boiler waters is calcium, 
which is deposited as the carbonate or the sulphate. Few of its 
compounds undergo hydrolysis, so it can seldom be considered a 
cause of corrosion. The amount of calcium which can be present 
without causing serious trouble from scaHng depends largely on the 
relative abundance of the acid radicles present; much more calcium 
can be present in a carbonate than in a sulphate water, because pre- 
heating a calcium-carbonate water precipitates most of the calcium 
as soft, easily removable sludge, while preheating a calcium-sulphate 
water removes Uttle scale-forming matter and leaves the water more 
Kkely to yield a hard, resistant, and troublesome scale. Magnesium 
is analogous to calcium in its action in a boiler, except that its salts, 
hydrolyzing under high pressure, deposit the oxide and set free cor- 
rosive mineral acids. Magnesium carbonate may be formed, but 
even that salt is decomposed under the conditions in most boilers. 

Alkaline salts have been stated to form no permanent precipitates, 
but to undergo hydrolysis and cause corrosion when they are suih- 
ciently concentrated. As addition of soda ash or other alkaHne salt 
in water softening increases the amount of alkahes in the softened 
water and therefore its tendency to foam, it is necessary to deter- 
mine whether the chemical treatment is likely to remove one objec- 
tionable feature by introducing another. 

Bicarbonates are converted by heat into carbonates, which are 
precipitated in combination with the alkaHne earths. Many natural 
waters contain enough bicarbonate in solution to precipitate thus 
the greater part of the alkaHne earths and the addition of reagents 
for softening is then unnecessary. The carbonate scale from such 
water is soft sludge easily removable from the heating system by 
blowing off or by similar means. Carbonate scale is the least harm- 
ful to boilers and the object of chemical treatment is to remove as 
much as possible of the scale-forming material as carbonates. 

Sulphates form hard, compact scale with the alkaHne earths. As 
It is not economical to remove the sulphate radicle from most waters, 
it is customary to add sufficient alkaline carbonate to precipitate 
the alkaHne earths and to leave ther sulphates in equiHbrium with 
the alkaHes. The quantities of nitrates and chlorides in most waters 
of Washington are not great enough to make them important m 
boiler-room practice, though they may act as powerful corrosives under 
some conditions in highly concentrated waters. 

FOAMING. 

Foaming in boilers is the formation of bubbles in the steam space 
above the surface of the water. If foaming proceeds to such extent 
that water is forced from the boiler with the steam, ^'priming" is 
said to occur. The causes of foaming and priming are somewhat 



22 QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

obscure, but it seems probable that they may be due to the presence 
of the hydroxide radicle, as it appears that foaming results when a 
solution containing a weak acid in balance with a strong base is heated, 
unless it is prevented by outside agencies. As the amount of alkaline 
bases in a water is an index of its hydrox^d-producing power, it 
seems reasonable to adopt the measure of the total alkali bases as the 
index of foaming propensity, and that is the common custom. Sus- 
pended matter, not only that normally in the feed water but also that 
composed of precipitated sludge, and small particles of scale loosened 
from the deposits in the boder may, however, cause foaming, and it is 
well recognized that with some waters foaming and priming depend 
much on the design of the boiler and the manner of its operation. 

FACTORY WATERS. 
CHIEF INDUSTRIES AFFECTED. 

The factories of Washington in which quahty of water has direct 
bearing on economy of operation or quality of output or both comprise 
breweries, dye works, ice plants, laundries, meat-packing houses, 
paper and pulp miUs, soap factories, tanneries, woolen mills, and 
wool-scouring works. The largest establishments are the paper mills, 
breweries, woolen mills, and laiuidries. A brief discussion of the use 
of water and the harmful effects of certain, constituents in each of 
these industries is presented in the following paragraphs. The reader 
is referred to any of the standard works on industrial chemistry or 
the use of water in special industries for more complete discussions 
of the operations and reactions that are involved. 

BREWERIES. 

The water used for brewing must be of great bacterial purity and 
must contain suitable mineral matter in solution, for it is not only 
a solvent and a reaction medium throughout the whole process, but 
forms a part of the finished product. Decomposable organic sub- 
stances or bacteria are especially harmful, as they mold the barley, 
lessen the activity of the yeast, and destroy the keeping qualities of 
the beer by producing offensive putrefaction products.^ Iron forms 
dark-colored precipitates with the diastase, thus disturbing the con- 
version of the barley. As it also forms inks with the tannin of the 
hops, the beer acquires a dark color, a disagreeable odor, and an 
unpleasant taste. 

Calcium-sulphate water is desirable for making light-colored 
beers free from resinous taste, because the calcium sulphate, by 
reacting with the soft resins C' bitter principle'') dissolved from the 
hops, produces insoluble resins and thus removes them from the beer. 

1 Palmer, Chase, Quality of the waters [of the Blue Grass region of Kentucky]: U. S. Geol. Survey Water- 
Supply Paper 233, p. 195, 1909. 



NATURAL WATERS. 23 

Water high in alkahne carbonates makes a dark beer, on the other 
hand, as the carbonates promote the solution of these resins. Light 
beers are said to have a hop flavor and dark beers a malt flavor, but 
there is more hop material dissolved in dark than in light beers, the 
difference in flavor being due to the greater amount of resms in the 
dark beer and to the blighter solubility of both hop resins and malt 
in the sulphate water of the light beers. Waters moderately high 
in chlorides aid the fermentation; but if they are too high in chlorides, 
development of the yeast, and therefore fermentation, is retarded. 
Sulphur dioxide for sterilizing the barrels m which beer is shipped is 
used to some extent; but if other means of disinfection were em- 
ployed and the keeping quahties of the beer were insured by proper 
care of the water supply, the general quality of the beer would be 
higher. 

PAPER MILLS. 

Water is used in immense quantities in the manufacture of paper, 
many mills requiring almost 400,000 gallons of water per ton of 
product. The water serves as a solvent and a carrier for chemicals, 
as in digesters and cookers; it conveys the pulp through the various 
processes; it is the medium in which the wastes are removed; and 
large amounts are used in the boilers and heaters. The water is 
usually treated to remove suspended and organic matter, particu- 
larly Hving organisms. Much suspended matter may cause irregu- 
larities in texture and appearance of the finer grades of paper, and 
organic matter may promote algal growths 'that streak and spot the 
paper and choke screens and pipes. Organic matter also wastes 
bleach and bisulphite Hquors. Iron is especially undesirable in the 
water as it deposits from alkahne solutions and spots or streaks the 
paper. Cross and Bevan ^ state that very soft water is undesirable 
for loading papers with any form of calcium sulphates, because of the 
solubihty and consequent waste of these materials in such waters. 
Dole 2 mentions the probable undesirabiUty of strong chloride 
waters for the same reason. But very hard water is at least equally 
objectionable in the chemical process and is much more so for use 
in making the large amounts of steam that are required in most 
mills. Hard water deposits calcium carbonate on the screens used 
to separate the pulp from the hquors; it also interferes with sizing 
and dyeing, precipitating the resins of the size, and wasting the dyes 
or changing their actions. The presence of alkah chlorides, on the 
other hand, is helpful in separating the thick sludge from the size 
liquor in preparing size. 

1 Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J., A textbook of paper making. New York, p. 294, 1900, cited by Dole, 
R. B., in The underground waters of north-central Indiana: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 254, 
p. 247, 1910. 

a Capps, S. R., and Dole, R. B., The underground waters of north-central Indiana: U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-Supply Paper 254, p. 247, 1910. 



24 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

WOOL-SCOURING, BLEACHING, AND DYEING WORKS. 

Water in which wool is scoured should be soft, as hard water forms 
with the grease of the wool insoluble soaps that cling to the fiber and 
interfere with subsequent processes, thus causing the wool to be of 
inferior grade, hard "feel,^' poor luster, and uneven color. Very 
little wool is now bleached, as the natural cream-colored stock is 
more salable. Wherever wool is bleached, however, it is customary 
to use sulphur dioxide, which is less injurious to the fiber than hypo- 
chlorite powder. Sodium peroxide is an effective bleaching agent for 
wool,^ but hypochlorites can not be used because they would combine 
with the fiber without destroying the color. 

Though hard water is required in some processes, soft water is 
generally essential in economical and successful dyeing of wool. 
This textile combines with dyes much more readily than does cotton 
or Hnen, owing to the nitrogen in the wool, and dyeing it is therefore 
somewhat simpler. The dyes may be of acid, basic, or mordant type. 
As the reactions involved are deUcate and easily disturbed, and as 
large quantities of water are used, it is very important to avoid 
irregularities in its quality that may cause variations in the color of 
the finished product. In some processes the dye may be precipitated 
on the fiber by reaction with alkahne earths and thus produce irregu- 
lar spots. Iron is especially objectionable because it may alter the 
colors in white and madder dyeing. Chlorides in large amounts are 
also objectionable, as they may react with the dyes. 

LAUNDRIES. 

Hard water causes waste of soap in laundries because the calcium 
and magnesium in the water form insoluble compounds with the fatty 
acids of the soap and thus destroy its cleansing value. The alkaline- 
earth soaps thus formed are deposited on the fabrics and partly decom- 
posed by heat and thus produce spots on the cloth. Iron is objec- 
tionable because it gives rise to rusty spots, and suspended matter 
because it soils fabrics. ' 

Whipple,^ who has determined by means of nine makes of soap the 
soap-consuming power of waters of different hardness, concludes that 
for each part per million increase in hardness about 200 pounds more 
of soap is required to soften 1,000,000 gallons of water. At 5 cents 
a pound this represents a loss of $10 per million gallons for each part 
per million increase in hardness. If his figures are applicable to 
softer waters than those he mentioned, it would require almost 2,000 
pounds of soap to give cleansing properties to 1,000,000 gallons of 
soft water. Any soap consumption greater than 1 ton per million 
gallons of water therefore represents waste. 

1 Matthews, J. M., Textiles, in Rogers and Aubert's Industrial chemistry, p. 733, New York, 1912. 
a Whipple, G. C, The value of pure water, p. 26, New York, 1907. 



PURIFICATION OF WATER. 25 

OTHER INDUSTRIES. 

Hides to be tanned are unhaired by solutions of quicklime. If 
very hard water is used in that process, calcium carbonate that is 
deposited on the skins prevents thorough action of the tannin and 
thus causes spots in the leather. The tannin of the tan bark is not 
thoroughly extracted and may be precipitated by hard water. Large 
quantities of chlorides prevent ''plumping'' in the tanning process 
and make the leather thin and flabby.^ 

Meat-packing industries use large quantities of water in the wash- 
ing and preparation of the various by-products, and it is necessary 
that this water be free from organisms which may grow in and decay 
the finished goods. Soft water is also preferable, as much water is 
employed for heating. 

PURIFICATION OF "WATER. 

FILTRATION. 
TYPES OF FILTERS. 

Filtration of water has long been used as a method of removing sus- 
pended matter, including bacteria, and of destroying dangerous 
organic matter. Two general types of filters are used, the ''slow 
sand" type, in which the water is passed through sand the top layers 
of which are removed, cleaned, and replaced, as necessary; and the 
"rapid sand" type, in which filtration is preceded by induced coagu- 
lation so that the particles to be removed shall be larger, and the 
water is passed through sand layers which are washed in place at fre- 
quent intervals. The construction, operation, and efiiciency of many 
plants of both types and disinfection and similar topics are discussed 
at length by George A. Johnson in "The purification of public water 
supplies." 2 

SLOW SAND FILTRATION. 

Slow sand filters have been used for nearly a century and are con- 
structed in essentially the same manner now as when first built. A 
series of perforated tiles or pipes connected with a discharge pipe is 
laid on the bottom of a large impervious basin, now usually con- 
structed of concrete. Layers of gravel, graded in size from 25 to 
about 3 millimeters in diameter, are placed over this network to a 
depth of about 1 foot, and over the gravel is placed a layer of fine 
sand 2 to 5 feet thick. Regulating chambers, pumps, and sand- 
cleaning devices are secondary mechanical features of the plant. 
The filters are roofed where danger from freezing is serious. Where 
the climate is mild the beds may be left open, in order to lessen cost 
of construction. The filters are divided into beds usually less than 

> Rogers, A., Leather, in Rogers and Aubert's Industrial chemistry, p. 798, New York, 1912. 
* U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 315, 1913. 



26 QUALITY OF SUBFACE WATERS OP WASHINGTON. 

an acre Lq extent, so that units can be withdrawn from service for 
cleaning without interrupting filtration. 

During filtration the water sinks through the sand, in which its 
suspended mud and bacteria are retained, and flows through the dis- 
charge pipe into the clear-water basin or the distribution system. 
The rate of filtration, ranging from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 gallons 
per acre per day, depends on the physical condition of the filter, 
the thickness of the bed, the average size of the sand particles, the 
turbidity of the water, and its temperature. When the loss of head 
in the filter, as it becomes clogged with shme and detritus from the 
water, becomes great enough to cause too slow filtration, about half 
an inch of sand is removed from the top of the bed and filtration is 
resumed. The sand is washed and replaced before successive re- 
movals render the bed too thin to be efficient. The time between 
cleanings is materially shortened when very turbid waters are filtered, 
so the slow sand process is adaptable only to relatively clear waters 
or to those that have previously been partly clarified by sedimenta- 
tion. Color is removed only slightly, hardness is not altered, and 
slight destruction of organic matter takes place. 

The efficiency of the filtration depends only partly on the straining 
action of the sand particles, for it is greater in a filter that has been 
in service for a short time than in a clean one, possibly because of the 
absorption of materials as they pass through the coating of gelatinous 
muck, and possibly because of the colloidal agglutination and also 
the mechanical straining of the water through the jelly-like mass at 
the surface of the sand layer. Bacteriologic action in the deeper 
layers of the bed partly oxidizes the organic matter in the water and 
prevents further growth of organisms by destroying the available 
bacterial food. 

The raw water is usually passed first through strainers, or ''rough- 
ing filters," or detained m a sedimentation basin in order to remove 
excessive quantities of suspended matter. Water containing large 
amounts of iron is troublesome because of its tendency to assist 
growth of crenothrix, an iron-secreting alga, in the underdrains and 
discharge pipe. Water containing much iron may be aerated before 
filtration by being sprayed m fountain-like jets over the raw- water 
basin, thereby oxidizing and precipitating the iron. At several 
places, especially in Europe, preliminary sterilization, by ozone, 
ultra-violet rays, or other means, is practiced. A very high degree 
of purity is thus attained, but the method is applicable only to clear 
waters. 

EAPID SAND riLTRATION. 

A rapid sand filter contains two essential parts, the coagulation 
basin and the filter bed. The coagulation basin, generally an 
oblong tank, is of such size and construction that the water requires 



PUKIFICATTON OF WATEE. 27 

two to four hours to reach the outlet into the filter chamber. Time 
for sedimentation as well as coagulation is thus allowed. The filter 
chamber consists of a tank, circular in the early forms but rectangu- 
lar in the larger modem types, fitted with a perforated bottom, the 
openings of which are small enough to prevent the sand grains from 
entering, but large enough to allow ready outflow of the filtered 
water. On the bottom is a bed of carefidly graded sand, 30 or 40 
inches deep and somewhat coarser than that used in slow sand filters. 
After the water, mixed with the dissolved coagulant, has stood for a 
proper period in the coagulation basin it flows into the upper part 
of the filter chamber and passes rapidly through the bed of sand 
into the drainpipes which conduct it to the clear-water basin for 
distribution. The rate of filtration is 80,000,000 to 190,000,000 
gallons an acre a day, the usual rate being about 125,000,000 gallons. 

Though several other coagulants are used the most common one is 
aluminum sulphate. When tliis substance is introduced in solution 
into the raw water it is immediately hydrolyzed to form aluminum 
hydrate and sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid reacts with part of 
the carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydrates, setting free carbon 
dioxide and converting temporary into permanent hardness. While 
the aluminum hydrate precipitated in the alkaline solution as a 
gelatinous mass is forming and congeaUng, it enmeshes the suspended 
matter, including bacteria, and absorbs color. If the alkalinity 
of the water is not great enough to react with all the aluminum 
sulphate some of the coagulant remains in solution, the eflB.ciency 
of coagulation is reduced, and the effluent is acid in reaction and 
consequently corrosive. This trouble is obviated by adding with the 
aluminum sulphate milk of lime or a solution of soda ash in proper 
proportion. The coagulant remaining in the water after the imperfect 
sedimentation in the coagulation chamber forms on the sand in the 
filter a slime that makes filtration more thorough. As rapid accumu- 
lation of this sUme causes the loss of head to become excessive, the 
filter must be frequently cleaned — usually two to four times a day. 
This is done by passing clean water upward through the sand, and 
at the same time forcing compressed air through the perforations to 
break up any agglomerations of sand and dirt. The sand is thus 
thoroughly mixed at each washing, so that it can not segregate into 
pockets. The dirty water flows away over the top of the filter. 
About 4 to 8 per cent of the filtered water is consumed in washing, 
and the process usually takes from 6 to 12 minutes. Agitation of the 
sand during washing is effected in some of the older fflters by means 
of revolving rakes with prongs extending downward into the sand. 

The rapid sand filter affects the chemical composition of the 
water to a much greater extent than the slow sand filter. Color 



28 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

is greatly reduced, some iron is precipitated, carbonates, bicarbonates, 
and hydrates are replaced to some extent by sulphates, and the total 
mineral content may be shghtly increased. If large amounts of lime 
are added, the hardness and total mineral content are decreased; 
otherwise the temporary hardness is decreased and the permanent 
hardness proportionately increased. With filters of this type highly 
turbid waters can be treated, smaller basins are required than for slow 
sand filters, and highly colored waters can be partly decolorized. 
As the method is used chiefly for filtering river waters whose quality 
is subject to frequent and important fluctuations, its economical 
operation requires constant and inteUigent supervision. 

STERILIZATION. 

Some methods by which sterilization of water for domestic con- 
sumption has been attempted rely on direct destruction of the bac- 
teria, and others on their indirect destruction by oxidation and con- 
sequent removal of their food material, but combinations of the two 
methods have generally proved most efficient. 

Calcium hydrochlorite has recently been used with excellent suc- 
cess to sterilize contaminated water supplies, especially in emergen- 
cies, and several hundred cities in the United States are now applying 
such treatment, most of them in conjunction with other methods of 
purification. The action of the hypochlorite depends on the fact that 
its solution in contact with the water decomposes to form, first, hypo- 
chlorous acid, and, second, nascent oxygen. The immediate and 
chief effect is oxidation, although slower less thoroughly understood 
reactions^ complete the destruction of organisms. The successful use 
of this substance and the ease with which its application can be con- 
trolled place it in first rank among disuifectants of water. If the 
sodium salt is used the water is softened, but if the calcium salt is 
used the hardness may be slightly increased; the effect of such change 
is, however, practically negligible, as the h}'pochlorite is applied in so 
small quantity.^ 

The early use of hypochlorite was attended by numerous com- 
plaints, because lack of definite knowledge regarding the proper quan- 
tity of reagent resulted in overdoing and thus imparting to the waters 
a strong medicinal taste or even an odor. Increased knowedge of the 
process proved that very small amounts of reagent are generally 
adequate to insure disinfection and that no odors or tastes result 
when the hypochlorite is properly applied. 

Copper sulphate ^ has been used more often for the purpose of 
destroyiug algal growths than for destroyiug dangerous bacteria. Use 

1 Rideal, Samuel, Water disinfection by chemical methods: Eng. News, vol. 68, p. 702, 1912. 

J Johnson, G. A., The purification of public water supplies: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper315, 
p. 67, 1913. 

A symposium on the use of copper sulphate and metallic copper for the removal of organisms and bacte* 
ria from drinking water; New England Waterworks Assoc. Jour., vol. 19, p. 474, 1905, 



PURIFICATION OF WATER. 29 

of it may, however, leave undesirable and even harmful copper salts in 
solution; alkaline salts may cause waste of the chemical by precipi- 
tating the copper at the moment of application. The usual method 
of application — towing a sack of solid reagent around the reservoir — 
is also crude and expensive. Copper sulphate has nevertheless 
proved to be a valuable algacide, and it has been decidedly beneficial 
to some waters. 

Ozone is theoretically an ideal reagent for disinfection, as the only 
products of its complete reaction with organic materials are carbon 
dioxide and water. Considerable progress has recently been made in 
the use of this reagent, and sterilization by ozone is a valuable adjunct 
to filtration in Paris, St. Petersburg, and several other European 
cities. The chief drawbacks have been the expense of manufacturing 
the ozone and the mechanical difficulties of effecting application with- 
out wasting the reagent. 

Ultra-violet rays have been successfully used m Europe to sterilize 

water, but the process is still in an experimental stage in the United 

States. 

SOFTENING. 

Water is softened for the purpose of removing suspended matter, 
iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and sometimes sulphates, 
particularly before its use in boilers. Preheating alone removes 
enough of the objectionable materials from some waters, but further 
treatment of others may be required. 

Many methods alleged to obviate boiler troubles consist in intro- 
ducing into the boiler with the feed water some '^ boiler compound" 
and subsequently removing the deposits produced by it. Many 
so-called ^'boiler compounds" contain, in addition to considerable 
inert material, tannin or derivatives of tannic acid, which being 
corrosive are destructive to the boiler. Some containing acetic or 
other acids are harmful for similar reasons. Others contain organic 
material, such as glycerin, wood extract, or molasses, whose effects 
are solvent as that of glycerin, or mechanical as that of molasses. 
Starchy materials have also been employed. All such compounds 
are harmful by causing corrosion or even scale production, or by 
thickening and fouling water in the boiler. In general the introduc- 
tion of reagents into the boiler is inadvisable and, where such practice 
is necessary because of inability to treat the supply before it enters 
the boiler, one or more of the inexpensive chemicals whose 
action and efficiency have been thoroughly established should be 
used. 

Several really efficient reagents are available for softening water 
and preventing scale, the most widely used of which are lime, as 
caustic lime (Ca(0H)2), and soda, as soda ash (NagCOg), or more 
rarely as caustic soda (NaOH). Barium carbonate is very efficient 



30 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

chemically for softening some bad waters, especially those high in 
sulphates, but it and other salts of barium are little used because 
of their cost. ''Permutite" (an artificial zeolite whose formula 
approaches 2SiO2.Al2O3.Na2O + 6H2O) and the iron-alum reagents 
have also been used with reputed success. 

The softening effect of lime is due to its formation of insoluble 
hydrates by reaction with certain basic radicles and calcium carbonate 
by reaction with the free carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate radicle 
in the water. Lime is not needed in hot treatment, as preheating 
accomplishes much the same work. Caustic soda, which is some- 
times used instead of caustic lime, has the decided disadvantage 
of increasing the total dissolved alkalies and consequently the danger 
of foaming and priming. It has no real advantage over lime with 
soda ash, which can be added if desirable. As calcium sulphate is 
not precipitated by lime alone, soda ash also is used in some waters; 
it removes the calcium as calcium carbonate, but leaves in solution 
the sulphate radicle which could be removed by means of barium 
carbonate if the expense were not prohibitive for most waters. 

The amount and nature of the reagents for softening water depend 
on the chemical composition of the water and on the method of 
treatment. Lime need not be added in hot treatment, as the bicar- 
bonate radicle is decomposed by heat into free carbon dioxide, 
which escapes as a gas, and the carbonate radicle which precipitates 
all or part of the alkaline earths. Some waters produce suflQ.cient 
carbonate in this manner to react with all the calcium and magnesium 
and therefore need only to be heated to purify themselves. Waters 
deficient in this respect may be treated with soda ash before being 
heated. 

It is not economical to soften all hard waters. Some waters are 
so highly charged with incrusting materials that they can not be 
used profitably even after softening because the foaming ingredients 
are so greatly increased; others are so slightly miaeralized that suf- 
ficient scale to iQterfere noticeably with steamiag is not deposited 
except after long periods of service. Dole,^ citing the findings of 
the committee on water service of the American Railway Engineer- 
ing and Maintenance of Way Association, states that it is not advis- 
able to soften waters containing more than 850 parts per million of 
nonincrusting material and much incrusting sulphates, but that it 
is generally economical in locomotive practice to treat waters con- 
taining 250 to 850 parts per million of incrustants and those con- 
taining less than the lower amount if a large proportion of the in- 
crustants is sulphates. An approximate classification reproduced 
from Dole's paper is as follows: 

J Capps, S. R., and Dole, R. B., The underground waters of north-central Indiana: U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-supply Paper 254, p. 244, 1910. 



INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS OF ANALYSIS. 



31 



Approximate classification of waters for boiler use according to proportion of incrusting 

and corroding constituents. 



Parts per million. 


Classification. 


More than — 


Not more than — 




90 
200 
430 
580 


Good. 
Fair. 
Poor. 
Bad. 
Very bad. 


90 
200 
430 
680 





METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 

Daily samples of water were collected for a year or less at each, sta- 
tion (see list on p. 8) and mailed to the laboratory, where 10 consecu- 
tive samples were united. The composites thus obtained were anal- 
yzed in accordance with the general methods described by Dole,^ 
though some exceptions should be noted. 

The total suspended matter in waters of great turbidity and high 
coefficient of fineness was determined by taking from 100 to 250 
instead of 500 cubic centimeters of the water. In the determination 
of alkalies one additional treatment with barium hydrate, followed by 
treatment with ammonia and ammonium carbonate, was employed in 
order to insure complete removal of impurities. The final residue 
was evaporated and weighed in a platinum dish. Fiftieth-normal 
sulphuric acid was substituted for potassium acid sulphate in titration 
of alkalinity, as there is no apparent advantage in the use of the acid 
salt. 

Besides the analysis of the composite samples, daily determinations 
of color and alkalinity were made for a great part of the time. Color 
was estimated by comparing the tint of the filtered samples with that 
of a series of shaded glasses that had been standardized by means of 
the usual solutions of cobalt and potassium-platinic chlorides. ^ 

INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS OF ANALYSIS. 

INDUSTRIAL INTERPRETATION. 

Formulas for the industrial interpretation of water analyses have 
been developed by Stabler,"* to whose articles the reader is referred for 
a full discussion of them. The formulas are as follows: 

^=11+1.79 Fe+5.54 Al+2.5 Ca+4.11 Mg4-49.6 H. 
£=H+0.0361 Fe+0.1116 Al+0.0828 Mg-0.0336 CO3-O.OI65 HCO3. 
C=0.00833 Sm+0.00833 Cm+0,0107 Fe+0.0157 Al+0.0138 Mg+0.0246 Ca. 

1 Dole, R. B., The quality of surface waters in the United States, pt. 1: U. S Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 236, pp. 9-26, 1909. 

2 Report of the committee on s.tandard methods of water analysis. Am. Pub. Health Assoc, p. 10, New 
York, 1912. 

3 Stabler, Herman, The mineral analysis of water for industrial purposes and its interpretation by the 
engineer: Eng. News, vol. 60, p. 355, 1908; also The industrial application of water analyses: XJ. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 274, p. 165, 1911. 

33476*— wsp 339—14 3 



32 QUALITY OF SUKFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 

2)=0.00833 SiO2+0.0138 Mg+(0.016 Cl+0.0118 SO4-O.O246 Na-0.0145 K). 
.E;=0.00931 Fe+0.0288 Al+0.0214 Mg+0.258 H+0.00426 HCO3+O.OII8 CO2. 
i?'=0.0167 Fe+0.0515 Al+0.0232 Ca+0.0382 Mg+0.462 H -0.0155 CO3 -0.00763 HCO3. 

2 040 

k=~Y^ (when Na— 0.65 CI is zero or negative). 

fc= -- ' p-, (when Na —0.65 CI is positive but not greater than 0.48 SO4). 

fifi9 

Jc==f;j „ Q^ ^, — n Ao c^r, (when Na— 0.65 CI— 0.48 SO4 is positive). 

J\a — O.oZ VjL — U.4c) bU4 

A represents cost in cents of soap at 5 cents a pound required 
to soften 1,000 gallons of the water. 

B represents corrosion coefficient, or relative tendency to produce 
corrosion in a boiler. Stabler states that if B is positive the water 
is certainly corrosive, if ^ + 0.0503 Ca is negative no corrosion because 
of the mineral constituents mil occur, and if B is negative but 
5 + 0.0503 Ca is positive, corrosion may or may not occur, the 
probability of corrosion varying directly with the value 5 + 0.0503 Ca. 

C' represents the number of pounds of scale which may be formed 
in the boiler per 1,000 gallons of feed water. 

D represents, similarly, the number of pounds of hard scale; whence 

the relative hardness of the scale is -^. 

E is the number of pounds of 90 per cent lime required to soften 
1,000 gallons of water. 

F is the number of pounds of 95 per cent soda ash required to 
soften 1,000 gallons of water. 

Ic, the alkali coefficient, is an index of the value of the water for 
irrigation; it is the depth in inches of water which on evaporation 
would yield sufficient alkah to render a 4-foot depth of soil injurious 
to the most sensitive crops. 

Fe, Al, Ca, Mg, H, CO3, HCO3, Na, K, CI, SO4, SiO^, CO^, Sm, and 
Cm represent, respectively, the amounts in parts per million of iron, 
aluminum, calcium, magnesium, acidity (calculated as hydrogen) , car- 
bonates, bicarbonates, sodium, potassium, chlorine, sulphates, silica, 
free carbon dioxide, suspended matter, and colloidal matter (silica, 
iron oxide, and alumina). 

The number of pounds of soap (G) necessary to soften 1,000 
gallons of the water is obtained by dividing ^ by 5: 

6^-2.2+0.336 Fe + 1.1 Al + 0.5 Ca + 0.822 Mg + 0.92 H. 

This formula practically becomes for most waters of Washington 
6^ = 2.2 + 0.5 Ca + 0.8 Mg. The cost of softening with an average 
soap can then be obtained by multiplying G by the price per pound 
in cents. In Hke manner the cost of softening by lime and soda ash 
can be obtained by multiplying E and F by the price per pound of the 
respective reagents. 



INTEEPKETATION OF EESULTS OF ANALYSIS. 



33 



Stabler classifies irrigation waters, in conformity with ordinary 
irrigation practice in the United States, as follows : 

Classification of irrigation luaters. 



]t. 


Class, 

1 


Remarks. 


More than IS 


... Good.... 


Have been used successfully for many years without special care to prevent 
alkali accumulation. 


18 to 6 


... Fair..... 


Special care to prevent gradual alkali accumulation has generally been 
found necessary except on loose soils with free drainage. 


5.9 to 1.2 


...I Poor 

i 


Care in selection of soils has been found to be imperative and artificial 
drainage has frequently been found necessary. 


Less than 1.2 


... Bad 

1 


Practically valueless for irrigation. 



Whether injury actually would result from the appHcation of a 
given water to any particular piece of land, however, depends on 
methods of irrigation, the crops grown, the character of the soil, 
conditions of drainage, and quantity and distribution of rainfall, 
and it should be clearly understood that the alkali coefiicient in no 
way takes account of such conditions. 

GEOCHEMICAL INTERPRETATION. 

The geochemical interpretation of water analyses depends on the 
geologic significance of the materials entering into solution. The 
primary rock formations yield water containing a high percentage of 
aikahes, but sedimentary and metamorphic rocks yield waters con- 
taining greater proportions of the alkaline earths. Primary forma- 
tions are usually siliceous and neither chlorides nor sulphates are prom- 
inent in them. Many secondary formations are rich in salts of these 
strong acid radicles, though carbonates also are abundant. Solutions 
of the alkaline materials from silicate rocks are high in carbonates. 
"When surface waters collect in basins to form landlocked lakes dis- 
solved matter is gradually concentrated, and salts are precipitated in 
accordance with their respective solubilities. A great proportion of 
the alkaline earths is usually removed from the solution during early 
stages of concentration; in chloride waters, however, magnesium 
chloride is one of the last materials to be deposited. Lake waters 
from volcanic regions produce carbonate waters on concentration; 
those from sedimentary regions may produce sulphate waters, and the 
final stage of continued concentration and deposition of salts produces 
the chloride waters, or true brines. 

Palmer ^ has attempted to establish a system of geochemical classi-, 
fication of natural waters based on the above facts, and his paper on 
this subject is an important contribution to the science. His classi- 

» Palmer, Chase, The geochemical interpretation of water analyses: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 479, 1911. 



34 



QUALITY OF SUKFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 



fication depends on the relationship between the radicles in waters 
and the types of rock from which they are dissolved, and, secondarily, 
on the concentration of the waters. The positive radicles determined 
by analysis are grouped as (1) alkalies (sodium and potassium), 
(2) alkaline earths (calcium and magnesium), and (3) hydrogen (free 
acids). 

The weak acid radicles (chiefly carbonate and bicarbonate) together 
are considered to measure the property of '^alkalinity" and the strong 
acid radicles (chiefly chloride, nitrate, and sulphate) to measure the 
property of "salinity." As the alkalies are characteristic of the older 
or primary formations, alkalinity or salinity due to their salts is 
called primary alkalinity or primary salinity. As alkaline earths are 
characteristic of secondary rocks, alkalinity or salinity due to them 
is called secondary alkalinity or secondary salinity. Salinity due to 
free acids is called ''tertiary" salinity. 

In applying his classification Palmer has used the reaction coeffi- 
cients of the radicles, as determined by Stabler,^ which are the quo- 
tients obtained by dividing the valences of the radicles by their respec- 
tive molecular weights. The reaction coefficients of the radicles com- 
monly reported in water analyses are shown in the following table : 

Reaction coefficients of common radicles. 



Positive radicles. 



Negative radicles. 



Ferrous iron (Fe) 0. 0358 

Aluminum (Al) 1107 

Calcium (Ca) 0499 

Magnesium (Mg) 0822 

Sodium(Na) 0435 

Potassium (K) 0256 

Hydrogen(H) 992 



Carbonate (CO3) 0. 0333 

Bicarbonate (HCO3) 0164 

Sulphate (SO4) 0208 

Chlorine (CI) 0282 

Nitrate (NO3) 0161 



If the amount of a radicle obtained by analysis is multiplied by its 
reaction coefficient the product is the reacting value of the radicle. 
The quotients obtained by dividing the reacting value of each radicle 
by the sum of all the reacting values represent the percentage react- 
ing values from which Palmer's classification is made. He divides 
waters into five classes, according to the relative numerical values 
of the various groups of percentage reacting values. If a, h, and d 
represent, respectively, the percentage reacting values of the alkafies, 
alkafine earths, and strong acids, any one of five numerical condi- 
tions may exist; d may be less than a, equal to a, greater than a and 
less than a + h, equal to a + h, or greater than a + h. He computes 
the properties of reaction of each class according to the following 
formulas: 



1 stabler, Herman, The industrial application of water analyses: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 
274, p. 167, 1911. 



SKAGIT RIVER. 



35 



Formulas for proper ties of reaction. 



Class IV. 

d equal to a+6. 

2a, primary salinity. 
26, secondary salinity. 

Class V. 

d greater than a+6. 

2a, primary salinity. 

26, secondary salinity. 

2 (d—a — b), tertiary salinity (acidity). 



Class I. 

d less than a. 

2d, primary salinity. 

2 (a—d), primary alkalinity. 

26, secondary alkalinity. 

Class II. 

d equal to a. 

2a or 2c?, primary salinity. 
26, secondary alkalinity. 

Class III. 

d greater than a; d less than a+6. 

2a, primary salinity. 

2 (d—a), secondary salinity. 

2 (a+6— c?), secondary alkalinity. 

Palmer found that surface waters belong chiefly to the first three 
classes and that sea water and brines form the greater number in 
Class IV. 

SKAGIT RIVER. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Skagit River rises in the Cascade Mountains in British Columbia, 
flows southward between the main axis of these mountains and Cus- 
ter Ridge across Whatcom County into Skagit County, where it 
turns westward, flowing first through a narrow and later through a 
broader valley and fijially discharges through a delta into Puget 
Sound. It is a navigable stream with shifting bed for about 70 
miles above its mouth, but in its upper course it is swift flowing and 
confined in a narrow bed. 

The drainage basin includes the region between the main Cascade 
divide and Custer Ridge, the slopes of the Cascades north of Monte 
Cristo and Indian Pass, and, through Baker River, the southern 
slopes of Mount Baker. The most important of the many tributaries 
are Ruby Creek and Sauk and Baker rivers. Because of its posi- 
tion in the Puget Sound area and of the character of its basin, the 
river is unusual even for a stream on the western slope of the Cas- 
cade Range, for its run-off per square mile is probably greater than 
that of any other moderate-sized river in the United States. 

The scanty data regarding the geologic features of the Skagit basin 
indicate that the northern part is composed largely of schists, slates, 
and sandstones, probably early Carboniferous in age. Certain out- 



36 QUALITY OF STJEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

crops near the Canadian boundary have been classed as Jurassic or 
Triassic, though the precise geologic series has not been established. 
The contact between the schist formations and the Tertiary coal 
measures, which form the surface rock of the middle valley, is near 
Hamilton. Bodies of limestone near Baker furnish raw material for 
the cement industry of Washington. The rocks near Marblemount 
are largely granitic. Sauk River drains an area of slates, shales, 
sandstones, and granite. The lower valley of Skagit River, well 
defined where it cuts through the glacial deposits of Puget Sound 
basin, and its slight slope are indications of advanced maturity. 

Rainfall in the drainage area ranges from about 40 inches a year 
near the Sound to more than 100 inches in the mountains. At Monte 
Cristo, measurements made by the Weather Bureau between 1895 and 
1901 recorded precipitation of about 120 inches a year. Precipitation 
probably is still greater at other places. 

The upper section of the basin is heavily wooded below the snov/ 
line. Floods, some exceedingly destructive, are usual in spring. 
Discharge measurements by the Geological Survey on Skagit River 
during 1910-11 and gage heights recorded by the Corps of Engineers, 
United States Arm}', make it possible to compute the variations in 
run-off as weU as the total discharge for the period of investigation 
shown in the table of analyses. On the assumption that run-off is 
85 per cent of the rainfall, the precipitation estimated from this dis- 
charge is not less than 85 or 90 inches on the area above Sedro 
Woolley. 

The river valley above Marblemount is practically uninhabited. 
Below this place, at Concrete and Baker, are the cement plants of the 
Washington and Superior Portland cement companies. Sedro 
Woolley is the center of the lumber, canning, dairying, and agricul- 
tural industries of the middle lower valley. Mount Vernon, near the 
mouth of the river, is the center of an extensive dairy country. 
Mount Vernon has at times used Skagit River as a source of municipal 
water supply, but the water at this point is too badly polluted for 
domestic use without purification. Sedro WooUey is supplied from 
a small upland stream, whose water is carried across Skagit River 
through a pipe line. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected daily from Skagit River at the 
Northern Pacific Railway bridge near Sedro WooUey from February 1, 
1910, to January 31, 1911, inclusive, by E. J. Woods, bridge tender 
for the Northern Pacific Railway Co. The gaging station of the 
United States Geological Survey is at the same place and the drainage 
area above that point is 2,930 square miles. 



SKAGIT RIVER. 37 

The river water is soft and of good quality for ordinary industrial 
uses. The small amount of rather coarse suspended matter that it 
usually carries can be removed by sedimentation for 24 to 36 hours. 
The use of this water in boilers may at times result in corrosion that 
may be prevented by the addition of small amoimts of soda ash or 
lime. The organic matter is the result of the presence of the immense 
schools of salmon which swim far up the river during the spawning 
season, and, dying off after spawning, Htter the shores and fill the 
stream with the products of their decomposition. This organic 
material may induce corrosion or other troubles in boilers. 

The excess of sulphate over the alkalies is entirely in accord with 
what is known of the geology of the basin, for the prevailing rocks are 
sedimentary and part of the strata is entirely unmetamorphosed. 
The slight variations in mineralization are shown mostly in chlorine, 
sulphate, and calcium. The relatively large variations in turbidity 
correspond to the fluctuations in stream flow. 

The content of silica is much less than that usually found in waters 
flowing from lava formations, and it is characteristic of run-off from 
the metamorphosed Paleozoic rocks of the headwater region rather 
than that from the later formations of the lower reaches. 

The rate of denudation in the drainage basin is greater than that of 
most areas on the western slope of the Cascades. For each square 
mile of surface drained, 258 tons of mineral matter in solution and 
124 tons in suspension are annually carried to the ocean — a total of 
382 tons per square mile, or about six-tenths of a ton per acre of land. 
Because of this high rate of erosion soil is practically lacking in the 
steeply sloping parts, the little that exists being held in place by the 
matter roots and fibers of the forest growth. Destruction of forests 
in the mountainous regions will quickly be followed by exposure of the 
rock surface over large areas, and drifts or eddies of soil will remaia 
only in the hollows and crevices. 

The determinations of the color and alkalinity of the water, made 
on samples collected daily from March 13 to June 15, 1910, inclusive, 
show the daily fluctuation only during flood stages, and therefore are 
more irregular than the determinations of the average fluctuations for 
the year would indicate. The water is not highly colored for spring- 
flood water, doubtless because no great amount of humus material 
accumulates in the mountains during winter to be washed into the 
streams during spring and summer. The alkalinity is so low that 
small amounts of soda ash or lime would probably have to be added 
at times if coagulants or hypochlorites were used in purifying the 
water. 



38 



QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



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WOOD CREEK. 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Skagit River at Sedro Woolley. 

[Parts per million.] 



39 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar. 13 . .. 


14 

16 

14 

20 

22 

14 

16 

54 

8 

8 

7 

6 

4 

5 

11 

7 
8 
8 

4 
4 


10 
16 
17 
9 
9 
9 
8 
8 
8 
6 
10 
8 


0.0 
.0 
.0 

a 2. 2 
.0 

a 8. 4 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a 1.4 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
ol9 

a 3. 8 
a 13 

a 4. 6 
a 14 
a 17 
.0 

a 7. 2 
.0 
.0 
.0 


30 
26 
24 
33 
24 
28 
31 
46 
31 
27 
29 
29 
36 
37 
35 
32 
32 
34 
33 
48 
29 
36 
30 
33 
35 
23 
14 

18 


17 
21 
28 
28 
34 


1910. 
Mav 7 


8 

6 

8 

8 

16 

16 

20 

15 

12 

16 

12 

14 

16 

8 

8 

6 

8 

10 

10 

16 

16 

12 

12 

10 

6 
8 
6 

10 
8 
14 
40 
36 
34 
30 


ol4 

.0 

.0 

06.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 14 

a 7. 7 

a 3.1 

a 6. 2 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 4. 3 

.0 

a2.4 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 


13 


14 


8 


23 


15 


9 


23 


16 


10 


13 


17 


11 


18 


19 . .. 


12 


18 


20 - .. 


13 


23 


21 


14 


23 


22 


15 


24 


23 


16 


24 


24 


17 


8.5 


25 


18 


20 


26 


19 


29 


27 


20 


23 


28 . . .. 


21 


24 > 


30 


22 


23 


31 


23 


20 


Apr. 1 


24 


23 


3 


25 


24 


12 


26 - 

28 


27 


13 


34 


14 


31 


32 


15 


June 1 


21 


16 


2 


26 


25 


3 


23 


26 


4 


23 


27 


5 


24 


28 


6 


21 


29 


8 


30 


30 


9 


23 


May 1 


10 


22 


2 


12 


15 


3 


13 


18 


4 


14 


21 


5 


15 


22 


6 







a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection. 

WOOD CREEK. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Wood Creek is a small stream that rises in the hills south of Everett 
and flows into Snohomish River. Its drainage basin, uninhabited 
and completely forested, is deeply covered by glacial drift. The 
stream is swift, its valley is naiTow, and its discharge is small but 
widely variable. The creek is important only because with two 
small streams floT^-ing from the same uplands it forms the water 
supply of Everett. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected daily from the creek at its point of 
discharge into the impounding reservoir of the city of Everett 
through the courtesy of Dr. A. P. Duryee, city health officer. 

Though the water is moderately hard, the hardness is mostly tem- 
porary and can be removed either by preheating the water or by 
treating it ^^'ith small quantities of milk of lime. Treating the water 



40 



QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTOK. 



for boiler use, however, is not advisable as the amount of scale- 
forming matter is so small. 

The water is characterized by primary alkalinity, which indicates 
that the prevaiHng rock material is of igneous origin. This fact is 
important as the underlying formations of this part of Puget Sound 
basin are supposed to be sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age, though 
the evidence of the water analyses indicates that the great blanket 
of glacial drift was derived from the intrusive or effusive rocks of the 
Cascade Range, not from the sedimentary rocks of the valley floor. 

Mineral analyses of water from Wood Creeh near Everett, 1910-11. 
[Parts per million unless otherwise stated.] 



Date. 


>. 

-f.^ 


4. 


h 

a 
o 










M 

^ 
a 

d 




■2o 


-6 

IS . 


1 

©o 


m 
















1 


From— 


To— 


'2 

u 




.2fl 

o 
O 


m 





a' 

'3 



•i-i 


w 
OQ 



.0 




-e.s 


ft 

02 


03 


I 




> 


s 


Mar, 


13 


Mar, 


22 


10 


15 


1.50 


26 


Trace. 


7.2 


5.2 


13 


«13 


34 


6.1 


Trace. 


2.5 


86 




23 


Apr. 


1 


25 


44 


1.76 


37 


0.01 


8.6 


3.8 


8.2 


.0 


54 


14 


Trace. 




106 


Apr. 


2 


11 


20 


28 


1.40 


20 


Trace. 


8.5 


4.4 


7.6 


.0 


43 


7.9 


Trace. 


'2.'5' 


. 75 


12 




21 


25 


26 


1.04 


26 


Trace. 


9.4 


4.6 


8.5 


.0 


56 


8.9 


0.40 


3.3 


94 




22 


May 


1 


5 


5.2 


1.04 


26 


Trace. 


9.0 


4.4 


7.6 


.0 


51 


9.8 


.20 


3.5 


87 


May 


2 


11 


50 


51 


1.02 




.02 


8.2 


3.9 


7.2 


.0 


51 


11 


.50 


2.5 


54 


12 




21 


20 


38 


1.90 


27 


Trace. 


8.2 


4.2 


7.9 


.0 


52 


9.5 


.00 


2.8 


91 




22 




31 


5 


4.0 


.80 


27 


Trace. 


8.5 


5.2 


8.0 


.0 


51 


7.9 


Trace. 


3.0 


90 


June 


1 


June 


10 


15 


20 


1.33 


23 


Trace. 


9.0 


5.2 


8.8 


.0 


57 


8.9 


Trace. 


3.0 


91 




11 




20 


15 


21 


1.40 


35 


Trace. 


11 


5.0 


9.8 


.0 


61 


7.2 


Trace. 


3.3 


107 




21 




30 


10 


14 


1.40 


19 


Trace. 


9.8 


5.6 


8.8 


.0 


56 


7.7 


Trace. 


2.8 


81 


July 


1 


July 


10 


50 


43 


.86 


41 


.01 


11 


3.5 


10 


.0 


55 


8.9 


.00 


3.3 


119 


11 

21 




20 
30 


7 


13 


1.86 


26 


Trace. 


8.8 




8. 7 


.0 


52 


12 






90 






5 


2.4 


.48 


23 


Trace. 


9.2 


*5.'2' 


7.6 


.0 


55 


6.9 


"".'66' 


'3.' 6' 


83 




31 


Aug. 


9 


7 


5.8 


.83 


27 


Trace. 


9.0 


6.7 


8.0 


.0 


57 


6.9 


.45 


2.6 


94 


Aug. 


10 


19 


15 


11 


.73 


21 


Trace. 


9.3 


5.0 


8.4 


.0 


49 


7.1 


Trace. 


3.3 


82 


20 




29 


2 


1.4 


.70 


28 


Trace. 


9.6 


5.2 


7.6 


.0 


54 


7.6 


1.9 


3.2 


90 




30 


Sept 


-8 


15 


13 


.87 


25 


.01 


8.0 


4.6 


7.8 


.0 


57 


5.1 


.00 


3.1 


82 


Sept. 


9 


18 


5 


3.4 


.68 


21 


.01 


10 


3.6 


8.2 


.0 


54 


6.9 


Trace. 


3.5 


86 


19 




28 


Trace 







21 


.01 


9.2 


4.4 


10 


.0 


63 


5.3 


.65 


2.8 


101 




29 


Oct. 


8 


5 


3.7 


'"."74" 


18 


.05 


7.1 


4.8 


6.7 


.0 


50 


6.6 


Trace. 


2.5 


85 


Oct. 


9 




18 


3 


1.8 


.60 


30 


.06 


7.2 


4.6 


6.9 


.0 


50 


5.0 


. 75 


2.8 


85 




19 




28 


5 


11 


2.20 


28 


.06 


8.6 


4.8 


7.2 


.0 


50 


12 


.63 


3.3 


89 




29 


Nov. 


7 


2 


1.6 


.80 


30 


.07 


7.2 


4.4 


6.1 


.0 


48 


6.5 


- .75 


3.0 


86 


Nov. 


8 




17 


4 


1.7 


.42 


29 


.03 


7.7 


4.4 


6.5 


.0 


50 


5.4 


.70 


2.5 


83 




18 




27 


1 


.8 


.80 


26 


.05 


8.8 


4.8 


6.8 


.0 


48 


9.7 


2.0 


2.8 


87 




28 

8 

18 


Dec. 


7 

17 
27 


3 
2 

3 






26 
27 
15 


.01 
.01 
.03 


7.6 
7.6 
6.8 


5.0 

4.4 
4.2 


5.7 
4.9 
6.7 


.0 
.0 
.0 


49 

48 
48 


6.9 
6.9 
7.6 


.50 
.10 

Trace. 


2.5 
2.8 
2.1 


84 


Dec. 


;;;;;;i ; 


80 




.7 


.23 


83 




28 


Jan. 


6 


2 


6.0 


3.00 


22 


Trace. 


7.7 


4.2 


6.1 


.0 


45 


6.9 


.05 


2.6 


78 


Jan. 


7 




16 


3 


7.1 


2.37 


24 


.01 


6.9 


3.6 


5.6 


.0 


42 


5.6 


Trace. 


2.5 


73 




17 
27 




26 
31 


3 


3.0 


1.00 


20 


Trace. 


9.6 


3.5 


6.8 


.0 


39 


8.6 






73 






4 


2.8 


!70 


16 


.01 


8.2 


2.8 


5.7 


.0 


37 


5.3 


'"'.'io' 


'2." 8' 


65 




Mej 
mtai 


m 


10 
rous re 


13 

sidue. 


1.15 


25 
30.6 


.01 
.0 


8.6 
10.5 


4.5 
5.5 


7.6 
9.3 


.0 
30.7 


51 


7.8 
9.5 


.31 

.4 


2.9 
3.5 


86 


Percf 


jeofan 


iiyd 






a Abnormal; computed to HCO3 in average. 

CEDAR RIVER. 

GENERAL FEATUHES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Cedar River rises on the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains 
near Yakima Pass, flows northwestward through Cedar Lake, and, 
after following a general westerly course, unites with White River 
near Renton to form Duwamish River, which enters Elliott Bay on 



CEDAR RIVER. 41 

Puget Sound south of Seattle. In its upper course Cedar River flows 
through rugged, heavily timbered country, from which it emerges a 
short distance above its junction with White River. 

In the Cascade Mountains the river flows over exposed metamor- 
phic and igneous rocks (largely andesites with some basalts and rhyo- 
lites), but lower down it traverses outcrops of Tertiary sandstones 
and shales that include coal seams. Near its mouth it flows over 
the deep glacial drift that overUes bedrock around Puget Sound. 

Annual precipitation in the basin ranges from less than 40 inches 
near Puget Sound to more than 100 inches on the mountains. The 
winter precipitation in the mountains is chiefly snow; in the lower 
valley it is principally rain. The snows remain unmelted on the 
mountains during winter, except when a chinook wind induces sud- 
den and usually rapid thaws. When this occurs the river is in flood, 
and if the chinook is accompanied by heavy rains the freshets may 
become violent. Spring floods are caused by rains and melting 
snows, and still another period of high water is caused by autumn 
rains. 

The water supply of Seattle is taken from Cedar River below Cedar 
Lake near Ravensdale. The drainage from the main line of the Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway, which skirts the river for sev- 
eral miles above the intake, is either filtered through thick beds of 
graded filtering material or carried into the near-by drainage basin of 
Snoqualmie River by a carefully planned system of ramparts and 
drains. Special regulations also prohibit the deposition of any train 
wastes at any place within the watershed. In addition to this pro- 
tection the Seattle water department employs a regular system of 
patrol over the basin to prevent trespass by campers, hunters, or 
tramps. The city has recently taken steps to purchase by condemna- 
tion the small part of the drainage area still privately owned, so that 
the whole area tributary to the river above the intake may be con- 
trolled by the city, thus insuring for all time a pure water supply.* 
The supply is conveyed to the city through a pipe line emptying into 
a reservoir at Volunteer Park, which crowns a high hill in the heart 
of the city. The annual consumption is about 13,780 milhon gallons, 
or 160 gallons per capita per day.^ Though Seattle is built around 
two fresh-water lakes — Lakes Union and Washington — as well as on 
Puget Sound, only an insignificant part of the water used in local 
industries is obtained from these sources. 

According to the United States census the population of Seattle in 
1910 was 237,194. The prmcipal industries are lumber milling and 
shipping, although several breweries, as well as car shops, machine 

i See also Freeman, J. R., Chances of pollution of Seattle water supply: New England Waterworks 
Assoc. Jour., vol. 20, p. 464, 1906. Possible pollution of Seattle water supply (anon.): Eng. News, Aug. 
30, 1906. 

« Personal communication in 1911 from Mr. John Lamb, of the Seattle water department. 



42 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 

shops, foundries, paper mills, brick and tile works, gas works, and 
others are located there. The city's importance results chiefly from 
its commerce, but manufacturing is rapidly increasing. 

Kenton is the only other important town in the basin of Cedar 
River. Its principal industries depend on near-by coal mmes, although 
it also has a brick works, a car manufactory, and a glassware factory. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Water from Cedar River near Ravensdale was collected for this 
investigation by Mr. George Landsburg, through the courtesy of the 
board of public works of Seattle. As the daily samples were taken 
from the running water above the dam at the intake of the Seattle 
waterworks, the suspended matter normally carried by the stream 
is included. Sedimentation in Cedar Lake decreases the amount of 
material carried m suspension to some extent, but as the upper stream 
is usually clear, the effect is slight. The stream-flow data in the 
table of analyses are compiled from the records of the gaging station 
at the dam. The drainage area above the station covers 149 square 
miles. ^ Discharge is somewhat regulated by the storage of Cedar 
Lake, but seasonal variations are nevertheless pronounced. 

Cedar River carries little suspended matter, and sedimentation 
above the dam and in the distribution reservoirs at Seattle keeps the 
city supply free from unpleasant turbidity except at times of excep- 
tionally heav}' rains and rising water. Dissolved mineral matter also 
is small in amount, rangmg from less than 30 to little more than 80 
parts per million. The content of silica, which shows the greatest 
variation, 'may be materially affected by algse and diatoms in Cedar 
Lake and in the sluggish water above the intake dam. Silica in- 
creases during storage of some samples after collection, and it is 
therefore permissible to consider unusually high estimates of silica 
abnormal; yet the average, 13 parts per million, may be regarded as 
accurate within the ordinary limits of analysis. The marked daily 
variation in content of chlorine is often greater than the amount 
which would be added to the water by a population of many thousand 
people on the drainage area, so no normal value of chlorine can be 
established from analyses of this water. 

The water is calcic carbonated in type, and is admirably adapted 
for all household uses. It does not foam in boilers and deposits only 
a slight amount of scale, which differs somewhat in texture from day 
to day but is usually rather hard. As the scale is siliceous no im- 
provement in that respect can be obtained by treatment with soda ash 
or lime. It is known that free carbon dioxide and oxygen are some- 
times present in large amount though no determinations of them 

1 Henshaw, F. F., and Parker, G. L., Water powers of the Cascade Range, pt. 2: U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-Supply Paper 313, p. 103, 1913. 



CEDAR EIVER. 43 

were made during this study. Owing to the presence of these two 
dissolved gases, one a solvent and the other a precipitant by virtue of 
its oxidizing power, service pipes are frequently corroded and rust 
is formed, so that it is not unusual for the first flow from taps in 
Seattle to be red. This condition, which is not at all unusual for 
waters coming from regions similar to that around the headwaters of 
the Cedar River and is aided by the low mineral content of the water, 
can be overcome by artificially hardening the water by the addition 
of lime. The exact amount of the reagent necessary at any time 
can be ascertained only by analysis of dissolved gases, but enough 
should be used to add about 10 or 15 parts per million of lime (CaO) 
to the water. This would not render the supply unduly hard for use 
in boilers. 

Color and alkalinity were determined on daily samples of water 
from Cedar Ki^^er at Ravensdale from March 6 to July 14, 1910, 
inclusive. The water was usually colorless or nearly so and the alka 
linity was small. If filtration were adopted the water could advan- 
tageously be passed through slow sand filters, on account of its soft- 
ness and its freedom from color or suspended matter. The alka- 
linity, which is sometimes too low to insure proper precipitation of 
coagulants, would then be a matter of indifference. 



44 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEES OF WASHIITGTON. 



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COOOOTf<i-iOIM-*'^l:^t>-'*cO(MCOOOO(NC^OOOt^'<*iC<5005Tt<iOCOCqc005Tt<CC 

c£5^ort^cDcb^~^ldc6cocococeo3^-^^>^odt6odc~^t^^-^^cDc6cOlOTt^^d^ocd^^cd^>^<X3 









00000000000000000 So o- 00000 oOOOOOOO o 
-: * o3*(^ & & 

O U !-< i^ (^ 



^ 



•So 



IQ 10 



<N 00 0> 1-H 00 O 10 10 05 O 



1 7: <B • 
«-- Cj M 

© o) a CO 



h3S 



fta 



Eh 



« 



0(MOCOcOrOC000005COTt<OOOiO»0-*o»000(MOOOO 

05Ttir^0500i>-i-(oooou5cot^eqo»ciiMO":ii-HO!MMt^fO>o 



00 T-l CO CO 0> CO O "* 1-H CO !>. (M O >0 lO 1-H r^ 1-H 

id c<i ic oi CO t-^ ■* 06 ■<*' t-^^ CO CO ' CO ' ' c<i ci 



1-H O1-H 05 U3 O 
■ (H 1-5 CO T-i r-4 



00 c<>o> t^ 

"3 CO CO 1-5 



pR S <1 S 



3 S^ g^ t^ 5 § g 
►? -^ ra o ;2; fi .? 



Ph a <«j a »^ ^ 



s § tj ^ S d 

< ^ O ^ Q ^ 



^ 



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:i 

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1^ 



ID 



ps 



GREEX EH^EK. 



45 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Cedar River at Ravensdale. 
[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar 6 


4 
4 

6 
7 

16 
8 

12 
8 
7 
8 
8 
8 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

4 
6 
8 


2 






2 


0.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

'.0 

.0 

al.9 

al8 

.0 

.0 

a4.1 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

"1.7 

.0 

.0 

.0 

"2.4 

.0 

°S.6 

"9. 1 

"8.4 

.0 

.0 

020 

al6 

a 19 

04.8 

a2.2 


24 
33 
28 
27 
34 
28 
30 
16 
22 
23 
20 
26 
27 
24 
24 
25 
26 
24 
22 
23 
21 
13 
13 
13 
27 
< 22 
.0 
1 
.0 
25 
34 


1910. 
May 22 


2 



55 
2 
4 

6 
2 
8 
2 

4 
7 
8 
8 
7 
5 
5 
4 

16 
8 
4 
8 
4 
4 
8 
8 
8 
8 
6 


a6.0 

a7. 4 

a6.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

al.4 

04.6 

.0 

.0 

04.8 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a4.8 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

al3 

02.4 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 


24 




23 


21 


8 


24 


21 


9 


26 


28 


10 


27 


22 


11 


28 


23 


12 


29 


24 


13 


30 


36 


14 


31 


29 


15 


June 1 


24 


16 


2 


26 


17 


3 


26 


30 


5 


33 


31 


19 


28 


Apr. 1... - 


20 


43 


2 


22 


34 


3 


23 


28 


4 


• 26 


31 


6 


27 


30 


8 


! 28 


31 


9 


1 29 


30 


10 


July 1 




11 


9 


33 


12 


3 


22 


13 


4 


33 


17 


5 


40 


18 


10 


31 


19 


11 


33 


20 


12 


38 


May 20 


13 


32 


21 


14 


34 









a Abnormal; probablr present as HCO3 at time of collection. 

GREEX RIVER. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Green River rises near Stampede Pass in the Cascade Mountains, 
in King County, flows in general northwest, and joins White Eiver 
near Auburn. In its upper coui'se, above the point where samples 
for this investigation were collected, it drains an area whose rocks 
are almost entirely andesitic. Some basalts and rhyohtes are found, 
as are also small amounts of tuff, but pyroxene andesite and dacite 
form the main portion of the surface rock. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected from Green River at the bridge near 
the hotel at Hot Springs daily from February 1 to August 18, 1910, 
inclusive, by J. M. Corcoran. Forest fires, which devastated the 
valley and destroyed all habitations at this place, forced the discon- 
tinuance of the station in midsummer. Xo discharge data for 
Green River are available. 

The water is typical of rivers draining areas in which the rainfall is 
large and the surface formations are Tertiary andesites. The con- 
tent of magnesium is less than might be expected. Though the 



46 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEES OF WASHrXGTOX. 



average content of calcium is only 1.1 parts per million less than that 
of Crater Lake, Oreg./ where andesites also predominate, the con- 
tent of magnesium is l.o parts per milhon less, and the calcium-mag- 
nesium ratio, which is 1 to 2.5 for the water of Crater Lake, is 1 to 
4.6 for the water of Green Kiver. 

The water is suitable for industrial use without treatment. It is 
nonfoaming, but will deposit small amounts of hard siliceous scale. 
Though true corrosion from such waters is unlikely, burning and 
resultant pitting may occur beneath the silica scale if boilers are 
improperly managed. 

Green Eiver receives pollution from many sources along its entire 
course and below the village of Lester can not be considered a safe 
source of domestic supply without purification. Tacoma has recently 
constructed works for the utilization of the water of Green River as 
its municipal supply. 

Mineral analyses of water from Green River at Hot Springs, 1910. 
[Parts per million unless otherwise stated.] 



Date. 






i 


i 






"tc 


■r. 


■fi 


~ 


"a 


jo 




Dl 










"^ 


~ 


^ 




^ 


% 


"c^ 


^ 


^ ^ 


^ 


5C 


. 


2 


From— 


To- 

■ 




1 

ft 

ES 

'X. 


o 

S 


O 
m 

m 


i 

i— 1 


o 

a 

a 

o 

r ^ 


en 

1 

■A 


m 


2 . 

1 


if 

^]3 




i 

i 


CO 

1 

on 

CO 

5 


Feb. 1 


Feb. 


10 


3 


2.6 


0.87 


17 


0.11 


5.4 


2.0 




0.0 


25 


12 


0.45 


2.5 


58 


11 




20 


3 


1.6 


.53 


18 


.04 


6.5 


1.3 


""6.'9' 


.0 


29 


10 


.10 


1.0 


57 


21 


Mar. 


2 


10 


•6.0 


.60 


35 


.26 


6.8 


2.1 


11 


.0 


51 


8.6 


.30 


1.4 


109 


Mar. 3 




12 


4 


16 


4.00 


6.6 


.06 


5.9 


1.5 


6.6 


Trace. 


24 


8.9 


.00 


1.3 


56 


13 




22 


10 


25 


2.50 


16 


.05 


4.8 


1.9 


8.2 


.0 


26 


10 


.00 


1.0 


51 


23 


Apr. 


1 


8 


6.3 


.79 


9.2 


.06 


4.1 


1.0 


3.5 


.0 


20 


3.7 


Trace. 


1.3 


39 


Apr. 2 




11 


9 


6.2 


.69 


14 


.02 


5.4 


1.7 


7.1 


.0 


24 


6.1 


.10 


1.0 


50 


12 




21 


10 


8.9 


.89 


13 


.04 


4.3 


1.3 


6.6 


.0 


29 


5.3 


.35 


1.3 


60 


22 


May 


1 


8 


6.7 


.84 il5 


.01 


5.3 


1.0 


5.4 


.0 


27 


6.5 


.50 


1.5 


44 


May 2 




11 


10 


9.6 


.96 20 


.01 


6.0 


1.4 


4.0 


.0 


25 


3.2 


.30 


1.0 


56 


12 




21 


5 


5.2 


1.04 25 


.01 


5.4 


1.2 


3.3 


.0 


27 


2.3 


.50 


1.0 


56 


22 




31 


5 


3.3 


.66 20 


.01 


5.3 


1.2 


4.5 


.0 


23 


5.2 


.00 


2.0 


55 


June 1 


June 


10 


15 


11 


.73 IS 


.01 


5.6 


1.3 


5.6 


.0 


30 


6.1 


.00 


1.0 


65 


11 




20 


10 


9.6 


.96 12 


.01 


7.3 


1.1 


5.0 


.0 


29 


3.6 


.00 


1.0 


43 


21 




30 


5 


4.4 


.88 23 


.01 


6.0 


1.4 


6.0 


.0 


27 


3.5 


.00 


.8 


58 


July 1 


July 


10 


4 


3.3 


.83 17 


.01 


7.2 


1.3 


5.1 


.0 


31 


4.9 


.00 


1.3 


54 


11 




20 


5 


9.1 


1.82 


17 


.01 


6.1 


1.0 


5.1 


.0 


28 


6.4 


.00 


1.3 


55 


21 




30 


3 


2.9 


.97 


12 


Trace. 


8.5 


.9 


4.7 


.0 


34 


3.4 


.00 


1.5 


51 


31 


Aug. 


9 


1 


0.4 


.40 


11 


Trace. 


6.8 


.8 


3.5 


.0 


29 


3.6 


.00 


1.8 


45 


Aug. 10 


ean. . . 


IS 


1 


1.0 


1.00 12 


Trace. 


7.1 


.8 


4.1 


.0 


28 


5.2 


.00 


1.8 


48 


M 


6 


7.0 


1.10 !l7 


.04 


6.0 


1.3 


5.6 


.0 


2S 


5.9 


.13 


1.3 


55 


Percenta 


ge of anhy 


drou 


sresid 


ue '33.3 


a.l 


11.7 


2.5 


11.0 


27.0 




11.6 


.3 


2.5 






a FeoOj. 

CHEHALIS RIVER. 

GENERAI. FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Chehalis River rises in the Coast Eange in Lewis County, flows 
northeastward to ChehaUs, then northward for a short distance, and 
finally northwestward to Grays Harbor, through which it passes to 
the Pacific. At Chehalis it is joined by Xewaukum River, and at 



1 Van Wiiikle, Walton, and Fintbiner, N. M., Composition of the water of Crater Lake, Oreg.: Jour. 
Ind. and Eng. Chemistry, vol. 5, p. 198, 1913. 



CHEHALIS EIVEK. 47 

Centralia by Skookemchuck River. Satsop, Wynoochee, and Whi- 
shah rivers, its most important tributaries, enter in its lower course. 
Its valley is broad and the general elevation of the headwaters is not 
great. Much of the basin is covered with a good stand of fir and 
other conifers, and lumbering is an important industry in the valley. 
Sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age, overlain by Quaternary marine 
deposits are probably the chief formations of the region. The Ter- 
tiary rocks include extensive beds of lignitic coal which is almost 
useless for steaming but valuable for gas production. 

CHEHALIS RIVER AT CENTRALIA. 
CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected daily from ChehaHs River at the 
bridge near Centraha by John Arveson, from February 1, 1910, to 
January 31, 1911. A gage was installed at this point October 3, 
1910, and approximate estimates of daily discharge have been made 
from that date until the end of the samphng period. 

The water is soft, usually turbid, and subject to frequent and great 
changes in its content of dissolved matter. The content of chlorine, 
which is noticeably greater than that of water from most of the other 
streams, is due largely to solution of saline matter from the sedimentary 
rocks of the basin and to wind-borne salt from the Pacific Ocean in 
the rainfall on the coastal mountains. Sulphates form about 11 per 
cent and carbonates about 26 per cent of the dissolved matter. 

The water is suitable for use in boilers if it is first clarified. It 
wiU deposit smaU amounts of hard scale and might also become 
corrosive under some conditions of service though it ordinarily re- 
quires no treatment. As it contains large amounts of organic matter 
and is grossly polluted with sewage, it is unfit without purification 
for domestic use or for any use requiring potable water. 

Color and alkalinity were determined in the samples collected 
daily from March 16, 1910, to January 26, 1911. 

Many of the marked variations in alkalinity can be traced directly 
to changes in stream flow. Sometimes, as on October 17, 1910, the 
rainfall was accompanied by a temporary increase in alkahnity, 
probably caused by increased solution of surface material during 
gentle rain. Nearly always, however, rainfall and consequently in- 
creased stream flow was followed by decrease of alkalinity — an effect 
of dilution. Alkalinity gradually increased with falling stage of the 
river until July 22, when it dropped suddenly, then increased grad- 
ually until July 29^ when it once more dropped. No rain fell at 
Centralia during July, but precipitation occurred at various places 
in the Cascade and Olj/mpic region on July 21 and 22, and another 
33476°— wsp 339—14 4 



48 QUALITY OF SUKFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 

slight rainfall was recorded in some localities on July 28 and 29. 
The drops in alkaUnity evidently reflect the rainfall in the upper 
part of the basin. The determinations of alkalinity occasionally show 
normal carbonates that probably resulted from reactions after the 
samples were collected. Experiments made by the writer on waters 
from ChehaUs River showed that one of the most marked changes 
during standing is a gradual loss of bicarbonate and equivalent gain 
of normal carbonate. The absorption of carbon dioxide by organic 
matter may influence this change. 

The water is usually highly colored, and appears decidedly brown 
at times even in small bulk. Whether some of the color is caused 
by colloidal suspended matter in tht nature of carbon from coal 
whether it is of peaty origin, or whether it was entirely algal is not 
known. The fact that strong color is synchronous with great tur- 
bidity is circumstantial evidence that the color is due to peaty 
matter, for the peat swamps overflow into the river during floods 
and thus deliver to the stream large quantities of highly colored 
water. 



CHEHALIS RIVER. 



49 






e>«0'OcoiOTf<-»»<iooo<-i«5t~ 



I a> (i> en • 
w3 -u c fr! »». 

5 11^^^ 



•*(rOO<00(M05<M»-<'OOt^ 

to e<3 CO >-i >-i -H Ti< 



c3 OQ (I S +j 
«;r5 c3 § OJ 

'^ O CO "^ 



?omo»o>ot^ooc<»ooc>3co-* 
rt"l--^T-^~lr^^-^^f(^^l^^l^^c<^l^o(^^ 






oooioicoooioomo 

OOCSlOlCt^COMOOt^O'^CO 
I^C005000t~i-IO>— ICOIO-^ 



."2 "5 



S.So 



COiO'-ic<?cOCO'-iCCiCOOt>->OCOOOCO(MO»00<MCOCOOOOC<OC«50000»OOOlOOOO 



(N 05 
lO 00 










° C3 




l-i 


)-l tl l-l (H 


H 


H Eh Eh Eh 



Eh EhE-HHEhEhEh HEHEHt^eH 






<NC35rf<c0^003'-i(M<-IOOt^l-^0 00 (N 00500i»0<NCTi05»0<-HOt>-iOCOcOOOOO»0 

o>ld^^»ood■*'»OlO^-^dcDcot>^o^^o■^•^t^cco6^-^lO■^<»kCTr^■<15cocc^orj3^o 



^ d 



cataaC 

.2 a 'So 



m. 



la 



( c« eq (N c^ <N -H 



rQ (-1 ^— - 



ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 






10-*»0>0(MIOO-*IM t~- «0t-C00005O->*i««D00-*00i-it^i0 •ooo>oo-<*'c<5ooe^ 












1-1 eo 






O ■* 0> C33 -^ 05 O CO CO C^ 00 »0 O --H C^ r-l r-l >0 rH Tf Tf -^ C^l -H CO 00 1-I ■* «0 I-H CO O 

iO'<aHiOT^r^»oddojo5rH-^o6dddo5o6oodoo6ddiodiOTfT^d»Oiodio-* 



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lO-"** .;(M-Hio „;00rtC0«000O'C00OOQOC0>0OC^»iC 



rH 000 00000 * SOIM SOOO 5^OOOOT-lrHOO<NC0e5.MrH,H.-(,-H^ 



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OOT*<QiOt^COOO-*QCO-*K^05'-i«003-<<'00-*COOS'0-<*'TPiC'OCOCOiOeC'*«0'«»<»0'* 

rt.-l?5^^1-li-li-l?5cO(NE^.-l<Ni-li-(T-H ,-lr-ll-(l-l,-l,-4i-H,-ll-ll-li-lT-lf-ll-l,-ll-ll-( 



2S5 






3 g « 2 « 



CO -H CO CO 00 CO 00 CO o> »o 10 






^s 



Ph 



O(NC><>-ti-i--i.-i.-(i-ii-iOpOOOOO3O»0»0000000000apt^h-t^t~t^t>.«0«OC0r-i 

1-1 1-1 c» i-i(N ^ e^ C0 1-1 e^ CO i-( e>< CO ^ ?« i-i cs i-i ?5 i-i c« i-i c< i-i c<» co 






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Q< 






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^ 



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3 3 



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■ T3 


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d be 


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« 


'a 


PM 



50 



QUALITY OP SUKFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Chehalis River at Centralia. 
[Parts per miUion.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar. 16 


16 
16 
12 
20 
16 
24 
32 
20 
20 
14 
14 
16 
16 
12 
14 

8 
20 
32 
36 
32 
30 
36 
36 
62 
48 
16 
.24 
14 
10 
14 
10 
12 
54 

8 
12 
10 
12 
14 
16 
14 

9 
14 
14 
16 

8 

8 
10 

8 
16 
15 
15 
14 

9 
15 
17 
15 
14 
16 
15 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

04.1 

.0 
.0 

00.7 

a3.8 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

ol.O 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a5.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

00.2 

.0 

al4.4 

.0 

.0 

0I2.O 

a7.2 

a7.2 

ai.S 

all. 8 

9.8 

0I5.6 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

al9.2 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a28.0 

.0 

06.0 

.0 

al4.4 

al6.3 

a5.8 

.0 

a8.2 

al2.0 

.0 

.0 

aTrace. 

.0 
.0 
a3.1 
.0 
.0 
.0 


22 

43 

23 

36 

23 
. 24 

23 

30 

23 

28 

39 

36 

32 

26 

29 

27 

34 

25 

22 

21 

37 

30 

21 

18 

19 

13 

21 

25 

23 

25 

21 

24 

15 

26 

14 

31 

30 

16 

32 

15 

21 
9.8 
9.5 

11 

30 

30 

32 

34 

27 


1910. 
June 6 


9 

8 
17 

8 
15 
16 

8 
16 

8 
18 
21 
16 
17 
16 
16 
16 
16 
13 
11 
15 
16 
17 
17 
16 

8 
32 
16 
16 
16 
17 
19 
16 

8 
15 

8 

8 

9 
16 
16 
17 
16 
16 

8 

6 
14 
16 
16 
16 
17 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 

8 
16 
15 
14 
16 
16 
16 
15 
16 
26 
15 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
15 
16 
16 
16 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

o2.4 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a7.2 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


35 


17 


7 


43 


18 


8 


38 


19 


9 


43 


20 


10 


42 


21 


11 




22 


12 


33 


23 


22 


43 


24 


23 


30 


26 


24 


30 


27 


25 


28 


28 


26 


32 


29 


27 


34 


30 


28 


35 


31 


29 


40 


Apr. 1 


30 


33 


2 


July 1 


34 


3 


3 


34 


4 


4 


37 


5 


5 


37 


6 


6 


41 


7 


7 


38 


8 


8 


45 


10 


9 


39 


11 


10 


40 


12 


11 


33 


13 


12 


39 


14 


13. 


38 


15 


14 


38 


16 


15 


34 


17 


16 


39 


18 


17 


41 


19 


18 


62 


20 


19 


41 


22 


21 


71 


23 


22 


71 


24 


23 


40 


25 


24 .... 


41 


26 


25 


48 


27 


26 


40 


28 


27 


38 


29 


28 


39 


30 


29 


63 


May 1 


30 


40 


2 


31 


40 


3 


Aug. 1 


37 


5 


2 


40 


6 


3 


40 


7 


4 


40 


8 


5 . . .. 


41 


9 


32 
33 
33 
39 
31 
32 


6 


40 


10 


7 


40 


11 


8 


43 


12 


9 


39 


13 


10 


38 


14 


12 


39 


15 


13 


35 


17 


32 
33 
44 
17 
14 
28 
46 
32 
29 
39 
35 
43 
32 
50 
33 
38 
45 
43 
44 


14 


40 


18 


15 . .. 


39 


19 


16 


43 


20 


10 
9 
9 
17 
18 
10 
10 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
16 
]5 
17 


17. . 


40 


21 


18 


40 


22 


19 


37 


23 


21 


39 


24 


22 


39 


25 


23 


38 


26 


24 


44 


27 


25 


41 


28 


26 


37 


29 


27 


40 


30 


28 

29 . . .. 


41 


31 


24 


June 1 


31 


40 


3 


Sept. 1 


34 


4 


2 


35 


5 


3 


45 



a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection of samples. 



WYNOOCHEE RIVEE. 51 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Chehalis River at Centralia — Continued. 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3) 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3) 


1910. 
Sept. 4 


16 

16 

14 

16 

8 

16 

14 

8 

8 

8 

16 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

15 

10 

16 

76 

78 

36 

24 

24 

24 

24 

24 

22 

22 

10 

16 

20 

22 

22 

22 

20 

16 

20 

20 

16 

16 

16 

24 

22 

24 

250 

108 

436 

86 

78 

60 

62 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
«3.6 
.0 

04.8 

.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


37 
39 
40 
39 
39 
26 
40 
46 
48 
43 
43 
46 
43 
46 
43 
43 
41 
37 
37 
41 
38 
43 
40 
37 
23 
33 
28 
23 
16 
24 
15 
28 
27 
26 
34 
39 
52 
45 
28 
28 
22 
33 
29 
33 
30 
33 
33 
38 
35 
31 
28 
18 
22 
16 
17 
16 
20 
18 


1910. 
Nov. 15 


32 
32 
58 
164 
40 
30 
36 
40 
78 
78 
78 
32 
32 
18 
16 
14 
15 
16 
14 
16 
28 
38 
16 
15 
13 
- 34 
98 
62 
40 
40 
42 
19 
54 

50 
32 
.34 
32 
32 
20 
16 
16 
24 
40 
36 
16 
18 
18 
12 
48 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

:S 

.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a A 

.05 

a .05 

a .05 

.0 

a .1 


23 


5 


16 


23 


6 


20 


19 


7 


21 


15 


8 


27 


22 


9 


29 


21 


10 


30 


22 


11 


Dec. 1 


18 


12 


5 


30 


13 


6 


29 


14 


7 . . 


17 


15 


8 ... 


22 


16 


9 . ... 


9.8 


17 


10 


24 


18 


11 


24 


19 


12 


26 


22 


13 


24 


23 


14 ... 


21 


24 


15 . . .. 


22 


25 


16 


28 


26 


17 


24 


28 


19 


26 


30 


20 


24 


Oct. 1 


21 


26 


3 


22 


24 


4 


23 


24 


5 


24 


17 


6 


25 


17 


7 


26 


22 


9 


27 


22 


10 


28 


18 


11 


29 


22 


12 


30 


21 


13 


1911. 
Jan. 1 




14 




15 


20 


17 


2 


17 


18 


3 


22 


20 


4 


24 


21 . 


5 


23 


22 


6 


24 


23 


7 


24 


24 


8 


25 


26 


9 


23 


27 


10 


22 


28 


12 


21 


Nov. 2 


13 


22 


3 


14 


27 


4 


15 


22 


5 


16 


23 


6 


17 


18 


8 


18 


17 


9 


19 


110 
32 
32 
30 
36 


13 


10 


23. 


18 


11 


24 


19 


12 


25 


23 


13 


26 


18 


14 











a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection of samples. 

WYNOOCHEE RIVER. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Wynoochee River rises on the slopes of Mount Churtan, in the 
Olympic Mountains, and flows southward into Chehahs River below 
Montesano. The upper part of its basin is heavily timbered and 
receives an annual precipitation of 100 inches or more, much of it 



52 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



occurring as snow. 



Except at the extreme headwaters of the river 
the exposed geologic formations are of Upper Cretaceous age.^ 

Wynoochee Eiver is locally important because of its proposed use 
as a source of supply for Aberdeen, to which water is to be carried 
by gravity from a point near that at which samples were collected. 
Almost the only habitations in the basin are temporary lumber camps. 



CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water from Wynoochee River at Frye's logging camp, 
20 miles above Montesano, were collected from July 17 to August 19, 
1910, inclusive, after which period it was impossible to obtain samples. 
As the river was low during the samphng period the analyses probably 
indicate more highly mineraUzed water than a year's average would 
have shown. The water is soft and excellent for municipal and boiler 
use. No treatment is necessary before using the water for industrial 
purposes. The river should provide a satisfactory supply for 
Aberdeen if its volume can be made suflB.cient at all times by storage 
and its basin kept free from lumberers and trespassers. The principal 
dissolved materials in the water are siHca, calcium, and bicarbonates. 
It was thought that large amounts of cycHc chlorine would character- 
ize the water of this river, but the average content, 2.1 parts per 
million, is not so large as that of waters draining the humid regions 
of the Coast Range in Oregon, which are comparable in rainfall with 
the Olympic Mountains. This surprising fact is not yet adequately 
explained. 

Mineral analyses of water from Wynoochee River near Montesano, 1910. 
[Parts per miUion unless otherwise stated.] 



Date. 


'2 
p 


©^ 


o 

+f Kl 

© 
.2 i=l 
S 2 

e5 

©^ 
o 

o 


O 

i 

fa 


g 
1— ( 


'5' 

o 

a 

o 


a 

© tx; 


Sodium and 
pot a s s i u m 

(Na+K). 


1^ 

6 


©^ 
t, © 


©o 

03 ^^ 
SZ © 

CQ 


.2 


© 

.a 
a 


1. 


From— 


To— 


73 
> 

.a 


July 17 
21 
31 


July 20 
30 

Aug. 9 
19 

an 

»e of anhyc 


1 
1 
1 
5 


1.0 
1.3 


1.00 
1.30 


11 

16 
11 

5.8 


0.02 
.02 
.01 
Tr. 


8.6 

8.4 
8.1 
7.7 


2.4 
2.1 
2.2 
2.2 


5.8 
4.7 
3.6 
5.2 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


37 
39 
34 
33 


9.7 

"3.'7* 
3.6 


0.50 
Tr. 
Tr. 
.65 


2.0 
1.9 
2.0 
2.4 


55 
59 
50 


Aug. 10 


2.4 


.48 


47 


Me 
Percenta 


2 

JOUS 


1.6 
residu 


.93 
e 


11 
21.2 


.01 
.0 


8.2 
15.8 


2.2 
4.2 


4.8 
9.2 


.0 
34.0 


36 


5.7 
11.0 


.29 
.6 


2.1 

4.0 


53 



COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

The drainage basin of Columbia River comprises about 259,000 
square miles in northwestern United States and southwestern Canada. 
Its eastern border is the crest of the Rocky Moimtains and its north- 

1 Willis, Bailey, Index to the stratigraphy of North America: XJ. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 71, pp. 572, 
778, PI. I, 1912. 



COLUMBIA EIVEE BASIN. 



53 



western limit is among the peaks of the Cascades; its lower portion 
receives drainage from the Coast ranges. The basui is divided among 
several States and British Columbia as follows : ^ 



Square miles. 

Nevada 5,280 

Wyoming 5, 270 

British Columbia 38, 700 



Square miles. 

Oregon 55,370 

Washington 48, 000 

Idaho 81, 380 

Montana 25, 000 

Columbia River, the trunk stream of the system, rises in Columbia 
Lake in the eastern part of the Kootenai district of British Columbia. 
It flows northwestward to the fifty-second parallel, turns abruptly 
southward, nearly paralleling its former course, passing through a 
series of narrow lakes until it crosses into Washington near the Idaho 
line. After a sUght westerly deflection it then resumes its progress 
southward to the Oregon- Washington fine at the forty-sixth parallel, 
where it swings west, and finally discharges through an estuary into 
the Pacific Ocean. It is navigable in places for 760 miles, and 2,136 
miles in the entire system are navigable. 

The important tributaries of Columbia River are listed below: 

Principal tributaries of Columbia River. 



Entering from north and west: 
Kettle River. 
Sanpoil River. 
Okanogan River.^ 
Methow River. 
Chelan River. 
Entiat River. 
Wenatchee River.^ 
Yakima River. ^ 
Klickitat River. ^ 
White Salmon River. 
Lewis River. 
Kalama River. 
Cowlitz River. 



Entering from south and east: 
Kootenai River. 
Clark Fork. 
Colville River. 
Spokane River. ^ 
Snake River. ^ 
Walla Walla River. 
Umatilla River. ^ 
Willow Creek. 
John Day River. ^ 
Deschutes River.^ 
Hood River. 
Willamette River.^ 
Clatskanie River. 



The drainage basin of this system includes all varieties of topog- 
raphy from the bold peaks of the Cascade Range and the west slopes 
of the Rocky Mountains to the flat, sandy plains of the ''Big Bend 
country," lying east of the river between the mouth of the Spokane 
and that of the Snake. Much of the area is forested, and although 
extensive lumbering has been carried on the proportion of forest 
lands has been only sHghtly decreased. 

Precipitation is unevenly distributed as to both time and place. 
Summer rainfall is small, in most of the region. In some places, as 
along the coastal strip and at the summits of the Cascade Range, the 

1 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 272, p. 64, 1911. 
* Studied in connection with investigations in Washington. 
> Studied in conoiectioii with investigations in Oregon. 



54 QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATEKS OF WASHINGTON. 

average annual precipitation is 100 inches or more, but it decreases 
rapidly eastward from the peaks of the mountains^ and in the arid 
lands of eastern Oregon and the low valley of central Washington it 
is 9 inches or less. In the coastal belt the climate is mild, the sum- 
mers being cool and the winters warm. In the vaUeys between the 
Coast and the Cascade ranges the cHmate is still mild but is less even. 
In the high plateaus of the interior high summer and low winter tem- 
peratures prevail, and on the elevated headwater regions the climate 
is extremely rigorous. 

It has been estimated that at least one-third of the available 
water power of the United States is afforded by the streams of this 
drainage basin, but only a small part, probably less than 200,000 
horsepower, has yet been developed, though several large power 
projects now planned or under construction will materially iacrease 
this amount. Many sites along Columbia River itself are capable 
of developing as" much power as is now used in Oregon. The utiUza- 
tion of some of these sites, located on lines of both water and rail 
transportation and in regions of favorable climate, will do much 
for the industrial development and prosperity of the Northwest. 
The only generally important industries of the region are lumbering 
and agriculture. Some mining is carried on in the mountains, 
especially in the Rockies. 

Ancient strata, largely metamorphic and ranging from Proterozoic 
quartzites to Jurassic and Triassic or even younger sediments," are 
exposed at the heads of the tributaries rising in the Rocky Mountains, 
Mesozoic intrusives cover large areas in Idaho and southern British 
Columbia, and pre-Cambrian gneisses occur in parts of Idaho; but 
the greater part of the basin, including most of the valleys of Snake 
and Columbia rivers iu the United States, is covered by thick sheets 
of basalt of Tertiary age. The soil of the basin in Washington is 
generally rich and fertile, but that covering much of the basaltic 
plateau is '^ volcanic ash," or pumiceous sand and disintegrated 
basalts, and it lacks humus and is poor in phosphorus. 

SPOKANE RIVER. 
GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Spokane River rises in Coeur d'Alene Lake, in western Idaho, 
flows generally westward and northwestward and joins Columbia 
River at Fort Spokane, Wash., just above the ^'Big Bend." From 
Coeur d'Alene Lake to the city of Spokane the river flows through a 
broad, shallow vaUey, but below that city it enters the narrow, 
gradually deepening canyon which characterizes its lower course. 

Granitic rocks predominate in the mountainous wooded region 
around its headwaters. The lower river traverses the prairies of 



COLUMBIA EIVEE BASIN". 55 

eastern Washington, where the underlying formations are Tertiary 
basalts and tuffs. A ledge of basalt blocks the channel of the river 
at Spokane and produces Spokane Falls, from which 12,000 horse- 
power is developed. Other plants along the river produce an addi- 
tional 45,000 horsepower. 

The mean annual precipitation is 17 inches at Spokane and is prob- 
ably less than 20 inches throughout the drainage area. The prairies 
are suitable for raising grain, and the valley lands support productive 
fruit orchards. The soils are rich and fertile, the generally slight 
rainfall being insufficient to cause too great leaching of lime and 
potash from them. 

Though the upper valley of tbe Spokane is well populated, few 
people dwell along the lower river. Spokane, with a population of 
104,402^ in 1910, is the largest city in Washington east of the Cascade 
Mountains and the second city insize in the State. Its principal indus- 
trial establishments are lumber mills, flour mills, and machiae shops. 
It is the chief distributing center for what is known locally as the 
''inland empire" and it has exceptional railroad facilities. Its water 
supply, which is obtained from wells driven in the sands of the river 
bed, is considered satisfactory for ordiaary purposes, although the 
water is very hard. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water from Spokane River about 8 miles above the falls 
were collected under the direction of the city health officer from 
January 1 to June 1, 1910, but thereafter, until January 31, 1911, 
owiag to the difficulty and resulting irregularity of collection, the 
samples were taken in the city at the gaging station of the United 
States Geological Survey by the gage reader, A. C. Lingle. The 
drainage area above the gaging station is 4,000 square miles. 

The river furnishes a calcium-carbonate water, low in mineral 
matter and excellent for all ordiaary industrial uses. Ordinarily it 
will probably not corrode boilers, but it is likely to be actively corro- 
sive when organic matter is high. Corrosive action at such times 
could, however, doubtless be prevented by leaving in boilers a thui 
coating of the medium hard scale that w^ould be deposited. Though 
the water is subject to considerable variation in amount and char- 
acter of incrusting material, the content is always too small to make 
chemical treatment necessary or advisable before boiler use. 

If the river water were properly filtered or otherwise purified, it would 
make a most acceptable supply for the city and would save the 
community large sums each year by decreased soap consumption 
alone. 

1 Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910. 



56 



QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 






!3 S ■♦^ W ^ 



1-iooooooorooor^cciM 
OS CO -^ c^i eo T-H 



•2 ^- 



"50000C0C00 
«5t-^O><MtOCO«:D«00 
t^05«5s0O»0<33C:t^C0 



CCa5-<rO-^t^Ot^co-9'C5»Trio»OCO(M003M<Os«0 
CCCCt^^cOCCi-i-H<M(riCOC»500<M-HC50-^t^CO(NOOC^ 



1-* CO •"if « C^ C<J <N 



03 OT ti t +* 
^ CO 



■<r0000iMOOOOOO 

■»)<->S<00-H0C0CC5C0Cr-( 
l^l>.C5»OC5r- IOIOCOC5 



05'-!i-OCOCOiOOOOOOOe<5COCOOOC<lt^T«<ir5COO"3C<lCO 

a50itct^ococ;D>-i-v(N»ococot^c^oc<ico^occO'*oa> 

i^O"— iC^O'^'-i'— ii-<0503'-"— ii— iC^-<J<CC5OT-l«Ot^C0f005 



•VCOCOCOCCINr^C^iN^i-iCOC<llM(NC^iO««'VCOCOCCC<l 






5^ 



s 



I '5 w 

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fioo 



O «3^ 



r}<ecT-lC^c01-l1-^^>.oofo05^J^oo»o»OlC»o^ofo^-<■^•<tl>o^^ 






ooooooooo-*o OOOUSO^O^i „ ^ „ „ 
OOOOOC;00^-<J<OC<)'>}<iCiO«00<MIM S S S S 



o o o o 

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«ooooooo 

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osi-H eo •<»' i o a5(M 

t^ ■v" 00 OS • ■«< ■^ U3 



cci>.ot>'t>-ot^'<»<-«"C^oiMos'-io5050C^oooo5»c>oe^ 
»/sec»d'^io«didoio«5t^"5!6>o«D'^e<5coe4cc'9''j!50co 



e«5(N 
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■<*< CO O O ■ M iC CO 
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0CXt>.Tf<O»OCO»-l 

e^i-iea-HO'VfOfoc<i'^'v-v«o«0'«''-Ht^cot^o6oso50so 



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oSSgg*ooooooooooooofflg§®| 
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t^t^coeooos'-icocdeo«0'-io6i-Hi-ioso6osi-ii 



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■ i-l C<1 <-! 



CC^ -1-3 

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CJ -^ 1^5 Tt< 



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C0-«»>00'<»<(MI~-(NCO->J<C<1 -cOOaO •OSrtNOOCO^CO 



rtfOIMOOCO'H I-H l-H r^ ^IM"-! Q i-H C^ 1-1 «0 N N ^^ 



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COLUMBIA EIYEE BASIN". 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Spokane River at Spokane. 
[Parts per million.J 



57 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar. 16 


9 

7 

9 

8 

8 

10 

12 

10 

10 

10 


0.0 

.0 

a 3. 8 

.0 

04.3 

a 2. 4 

all 

a 8. 4 

ol9 

.0 


24 
28 
42 
23 
17 
18 
21 
24 
3.7 
27 


1910. 
May 10 


9 
8 
8 
9 
8 
8 
8 
8 
10 


a 7. 2 
0I6 
a 12 

.0 
a 12 

.0 

03.6 

.0 

.0 


12 


18 


11 




21 


12 


2.4 


May 2 


14 


26 


3 


15 

16 . . 


16 


4 


22 


5 


18 


21 


6. 


23 


29 


7 


24 


28 


9 











a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection of samples. 
OKANOGAN RIVER. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Okanogan River, rising in Okanogan Lakes, British Columbia, 
flows southward across the international boundary through a chain of 
long, narrow lakes and joins Columbia River near Brewster. Its 
drainage basin is broken and mountainous and except in the river 
valleys is well timbered. The annual precipitation is 20 inches or less 
and occurs mostly in winter. Discharge measurements on Okanogan 
River itseK are lacking, but measurements on tributaries ^ indicate 
that maximum discharge occurs in the late spring as a result of melt- 
ing of snow on the higher parts of the basin. 

The prevaihng rocks in the region are gneisses and schists, but lime- 
stones and granites are found in some localities. The southeastern 
part of the basin is largely overlain by basalt. The soil is usually 
very fertile, the rainfall being insuflicient to leach out excessively 
the soluble salts. 

Lack of adequate transportation facilities has undoubtedly retarded 
development of this region, but the reclamation of 10,000 acres of 
prairie land by the United States Reclamation Service and the con- 
struction of new railroads, both now in progress, ^ill furnish the 
impetus necessary to place this section of the State in its proper rank. 
Lumbering and agriculture are the principal industries. The river 
valley is well suited to orchards, and fruit growing is destined to 
become a leading occupation. Population is at present sparse and 
the towns are few and small. 

' Stevens, J. C, and Henshaw, F. F., Surface water supply of the United States, 1907-8, pt. 12: U. S. 
Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 252, p. 120, 1910. 



58 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected daily from Okanogan River at 
Okanogan by employees of the United States Reclamation Service 
from March 13, 1910, to January 16, 1911, inclusive. 

This calcium-carbonate water of moderate mineral content would 
deposit less than two-thirds of a pound of scale for every 1,000 gal- 
lons of it evaporated in a boiler, and artificial softening of it would 
therefore be unnecessary, though preheating might effect removal 
of some scale-making material and the dissolved gases capable of 
causing corrosion. The water is excellent for agricultural use. It 
is typical drainage from a country of mixed limestone and volcanic 
rocks and shows also the presence of much sulphate rock — possibly 
gypsum. 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Okanogan River were deter- 
mined daily from March 14 to May 4, 1910, inclusive. The great 
variations in color do not bear any apparent relation to the varia- 
tions in alkalinity. The color decreased from March 14 until April 
20, with slight interruptions, and the rains of March iV, 19, and 22 
and April 9 caused slight additional decreases in color. Alkalinity 
also decreased on March 17, but increased on March 19 and 22 and 
April 9. The lower alkahnity on the days following the rain, how- 
ever, probably indicates the effect of the rainfall. The irregularities 
in color and alkalinity may be referable to changes in temperature 
and precipitation in the Canadian part of the basin, for which clima- 
tologic data are not available. 

The alkalinity due to bicarbonates decreased steadily during the 
period of observation, and although carbonate alkalinity increased 
total alkalinity decreased. This seems remarkable, as the weather 
was rather dry and the discharge of the river might be expected to 
have been decreasing, but as a matter of fact the snow on the higher 
areas was melting at that time, and the decrease in alkalinity was 
undoubtedly due to the dilution of water from that source. 



COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN. 

Mineral analyses of water from Okanogan River at Okanogan, 1910-11. 
[Parts per million unless otherwise stated.] 



59 



Date. 




•d 


o 






^ 


a 

3 


e3 ?J 


c3 • 


to 


c3 • 




^^ 


M 
S 

1 






>> 




^^ 


O 


^ 


u 




wM 


SO 






t-c J? 









T) 


From— 


To— 


2 
3 


3 




i 


a 

o 


a 

o 


(A 




c3 


'-'2, 


3 




2 


<B 






e 


CO 


o 


CQ 


1— 1 


o 


^ 


02 


O 


w^ 


CQ 


2 





ft 


Mar. 3 


Mar. 12 


20 


24 


1.20 


18 


0.02 


27 


7.8 


10 


0.0 


92 


25 


0.20 


0.7 


145 


13 


22 


20 


16 


.80 


20 


.03 


28 


7.5 


7.9 


.0 


115 


22 


.00 


.3 


148 


23 


Apr. 1 
11 


50 
18 






16 
23 


.05 
.03 


20 

17 


5.5 
5.7 


11 

9.6 


.0 
.0 


96 
73 


16 
17 


.40 
.25 


.6 
.8 


116 


Apr. 2 
12 


37 


2.06 


115 


21 


45 


63 


1.40 


4.9 


.03 


15 


5.0 


8.0 


.0 


68 


17 


.50 


.3 


86 


22 


May 1 


250 


117 


.47 


14 


.04 


16 


1.9 


7.9 


.0 


60 


8.5 




.8 


89 


May 2 


11 


40 


37 


.93 


15 


.04 


16 


3.6 


7.9 


.0 


66 


8.8 


.20 


.8 


90 


12 


21 


50 


51 


1.02 


12 


.05 


13 


2.9 


7.7 


.0 


58 


8.4 


.35 


.3 


76 


22 


31 


60 


54 


.90 


9.8 


.01 


12 


2.4 


6.1 


.0 


54 


8.2 




Tr. 


72 


June 1 


June 10 


13 


14 


1.08 


10 


.01 


13 


3.5 


6.1 


.0 


57 


5.1 




.1 


67 


11 


20 


30 


34 


1.13 


6.4 


.01 


12 


2.9 


5.0 


.0 


51 


6.1 


.66 


.1 


65 


21 


30 


30 


35 


1.17 


6.8 


.01 


17 


2.5 


8.4 


.0 


72 


7.0 


.00 


Tr. 


90 


July 1 


July 10 


20 


69 


3.45 


87 


.02 


13 


2.7 


9.8 


.0 


60 


8.6 


.00 


1.6 


182 


11 


20 


55 


75 


1.36 


15 


.02 


16 


2.7 


9.5 


.0 


70 


8.4 


.00 


1.3 


93 


21 


30 


12 


19 


1.58 


9.0 


.02 


17 


4.0 


12 


.0 


78 


12 


Tr. 


.8 


96 


31 


Aug. 9 


3 


Tr. 




12 


.01 


24 


4.7 


9.0 


.0 


92 


13 




.8 


117 


Aug. 10 


• 19 


5 


4.8 


.96 


16 


.01 


24 


4.5 


12 


.0 


98 


14 


.26 


1.5 


124 


20 


29 


10 


20 


2.00 


12 


Tr. 


26 


5.8 


9.6 


.0 


95 


18 


Tr. 


.5 


128 


30 


Sept. 8 


15 


33 


2.20 


6.4 


.04 


16 


5.8 


11 


.0 


67 


18 


.50 


.8 


96 


Sept. 9 


18 


8 


4.6 


.57 


11 


Tr. 


29 


5.8 


7.2 


.0 


109 


18 


.00 


.4 


130 


19 


28 


5 


6.8 


1.36 


7.4 


.02 


28 


5.2 


8.5 


.0 


98 


21 


.80 


.5 


136 


29 


Oct. 8 


7 


2.8 


.40 


12 


.02 


27 


5.4 


11 


.0 


101 


24 


.39 


1.0 


129 


Oct. 9 


18 


5 


7.2 


1.44 


8.6 


.02 


21 


3.8 


9.1 


.0 


74 


19 


.42 


1.2 


99 


19 


28 


1 


3.4 


3.40 


12 


.01 


23 


4.0 


9.6 


.0 


77 


15 


2.5 


2.8 


101 


29 


Nov. 7 


7 


2.8 


.40 


11 


.02 


18 


4.0 


6.9 


.0 


70 


13 


.50 


1.8 


95 


Nov. 8 


17 


6 


1.0 


.17 


14 


.01 


20 


4.5 


7.4 


.0 


77 


20 


.60 


.5 


104 


18 


27 


5 


6.2 


1.24 


6.4 


.01 


21 


4.6 


6.6 


.0 


78 


20 


Tr. 


.5 


100 


28 


Dec. 7 


5 


1.4 


.28 


11 


Tr. 


22 


5.0 


6.0 


.0 


78 


23 


.00 


2.3 


109 


Dec. 8 


17 


3 


2.6 


.87 


5.4 


.01 


24 


5.2 


8.7 


.0 


90 


20 


Tr. 


.5 


115 


18 


27 


5 


3.2 


.64 


10 


.01 


31 


6.4 


6.1 


.0 


102 


24 


Tr. 


.6 


130 


28 


Jan. 6 


4 


2.0 


.50 


13 


Tr. 


27 


6.2 


5.3 


.0 


95 


20 


Tr. 


.8 


126 


Jan. 7 


16 
^n 


5 


6.6 


1.32 


14 


Tr. 


30 


6.8 


10 


.0 


113 


22 


Tr. 


1.3 


143 


Me 


25 


24 


1.21 


14 


.02 


21 


4.6 


8.5 


.0 


81 


16 


.28 


.8 


110 


Percenta 


ge of anhy 


drous] 


residue 




13.3 


.0 


20.0 


4.4 


8.1 


38.0 




15.2 


.3 


.7 






Color and alkalinity of the water of Okanogan River at Okanogan. 

[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar. 14 


20 

18 

18 

18 

8 

8 

24 

16 

20 

40 

16 

8 

12 

8 

8 

6 

9 

6 


e Trace. 

Trace. 

.0 

a 3. 84 

a 9. 6 

.0 

al.2 

a 4. 3 

a 10. 6 

a 19. 4 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a3.6 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a21.C 


121 

118 

116 

107 

109 

109 

88 

104 

84. 

71 

94 

94 

91 

96 

99 

96 

106 

77 


1910. 
Apr. 12 


8 

5 

6 

6 

6 

4 

4 

8 

8 

10 

54 

32 

12 

6 

10 

8 

8 


a3.6 

07.0 
.0 
.0 

al.2 
a 17. 8 
25.7 
0I5.4 
045.0 
a 11. 5 
20.6 
al7.0 
38.0 
a25. 5 

07.2 
031.0 
0I8.3 


87 


15 


13 


85 


16 


14 


96 


17 


15 


95 


18 


16 


98 


19 


20 


61 


20 


21 


25 


22 


22 


41 


23 


23 




25 


25 


45 


26 


26 


39 


30 


27 


24 


Apr. 1 


29 





4 


30 


13 


5 


May 2 


43 


6 


3 


22 


7 


4 


34 


9 











« Abnormal; probably present as HC03»in sample as collected. 



60 QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATEKS OF WASHIN^GTON. 

WENATCHEE RIVER. 
GENERAL FEATURES OF DRALN^AGE BASLN. 

Wenatchee River rises in Cady Pass, among the peaks of the Cas- 
cade Mountains in north-central Washington, flows eastward through 
Wenatchee Lake, and then generally southward and southeastward 
to its junction with the Columbia near Wenatchee. The upper river 
skirts the southwestern border of its broad valley and at one place, 
above Leavenworth, actually leaves its true valley and flows in the 
steep, narrow Wenatchee Canyon, cut for about 6 miles through hard 
granite. It reenters its valley at Leavenworth, and thence to its 
mouth pursues a more normal course. The upper valley is well tim- 
bered, but the lower valley except for its orchard lands is almost tree- 
less, the principal growth being sagebrush. 

In its upper reaches the Wenatchee exposes schists and sand- 
stones lying between the gneisses and granitic formations, of which 
all the highest elevations are composed. 

The Entiat Mountains, which form the northern border of the 
valley, are largely schistose, mica and hornblende schists predom- 
inating.^ The rocks of the Wenatchee Mountains, on the south, are 
granitic, and serpentine representing altered peridotite is locally 
abundant. Arkosic sandstone is widely distributed in the upper por- 
tion of the valley, but the middle and lower portions, except at the 
Leavenworth cut-ofl, are deeply gravel filled. 

The soil, though usually poor in lime, is rich and fertile. Orchards 
thrive, and the apples of this valley have become famous for their 
flavor and shipping quahties. Precipitation is abundant in the upper 
part but somewhat deficient in the lower part of the vaUey ; at Wenat- 
chee it is about 16 inches a year and occurs mostly as snow. 

The city water supply of Leavenworth is taken from the river and 
one of its tributaries. Typhoid fever, prevalent at times in Leaven- 
worth, has probably been caused by infection of the water by con- 
struction camps on the river bank above the intake. Cashmere also 
uses the water for city supply. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

During the period of this study, from February 1, 1910, to January 
31, 1911, samples of water were collected daily by W. R. McManus 
from Wenatchee River at a point below the United States Geological 
Survey gaging station at Cashmere but above the city drainage. 
No samples could be collected during the floods of March, 1910. The 
drainage area above this point is 1,200 square miles. ^ 

1 Russell, I. C, A preliminary paper on the geology of the Cascade Mountains in northern Washington: 
U. S. Geol. Survey Twentieth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 83, 1900. 

2 Henshaw, F. F., and others, Smface water supply of the north Pacific coast, 1910: U.S. Geol. Survey 
Water-supply Paper 292, p. 141, 1913. 



COLUMBIA EIYER BASIN. 61 

The water of Wenatch.ee River contains little dissolved or suspended 
matter, and will deposit a very little but rather hard scale in boilers. 
Notwithstanding its low average content of dissolved matter, Wenat- 
chee River carries down to the Columbia each year in solution 
approximately 160 tons of rock material per square mile of drainage 
area, or nearly 190,000 tons. The water has secondary saUnity. 
Sihca is remarkably variable in the analyses, but it is beUeved that 
the high figure of the report for April 2 to 11 does not represent the 
water as collected. Many diatoms were found in the composite 
sample for July 1 to 10, and it is beheved that these organisms, having 
grown rapidly in the water after collection, passed through the filters 
that were used to remove suspended matter, and thus caused abnor- 
mal dissolved sihcas. Magnesium was determined by the gravimetric 
method in the first seven analyses, and the precipitates may have con- 
tained weighable impurities. Subsequent determinations by the volii- 
metric method gave much lower but probably more nearly accurate 
results. 

Color was noticeable in March but not later. The river was rising 
during the period — between March 1 and June 15 — covered by 
these tests of color and alkalinity, and the alkalinity decreased with 
considerable regularity during that period. If a coagulant is added 
in purifying the water for use as a municipal supply, care will have to 
be exercised either not to add reagents in excess of the reacting 
capacity of the alkaUnity, or to increase the alkalinity when necessary 
by adding soda ash or milk of lime. 



62 



QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



I 



CO 



■^ t 



c 




s 


c 

3 




rt 


o 


o 

•1— 1 


'^ 


a 






>5 



CD t-, <D 

> « a^ 

C/3 C3 C OT 

•Eaa OX) 



^-T^ O c3 O c6 



t^OOCMOSt^.— (COiOC^iOOOtO-— l03t^CO;00(MOO<NrHOOCDiOiOO(MOOOOOOiO'OCOTj(C^ 
e<l(NCOU^OOO'-Hr-.TtiCOf005a5t^COO'^COC^i-Hi^rH.-Hi-(ev)(NCSC^COiO(NT-H.-(i--lr-(r-<.-l 



to CO T-H O O CD 1— I O lO CD O t^ 00 lO 00 d (N (N (N CO (N CO i-H O 

'^f" 00 T-H rH i-H C«D -^ -^ lO C^ 1— I 1—1 



•<ji CO <N >-H a> 

' C0»0 CO IN 



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Co CO tj O -i-^ 
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COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN. 



63 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Wenatchee River at Cashmere. 

[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
jfar 11 


14 

16 

16 

16 

18 

16 

16 

12 

16 

18 

18 

12 

8 

8 

6 

Trace. 

4 

2 

10 

28 

16 

8 

8 

8 

6 

8 

8 

10 

8 

8 

12 

12 

12 

20 

14 

6 

" 8 

8 

7 


0.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

olO 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

o2. 4 

a 2. 6 

.0 

19,1 

04.8 

0I2 

04.3 

a 6. 7 

all 

.0 
a 1.4 
a 10 
.0 
.0 
all 
.0 
a5.8 
.0 
a 12 
.0 
04.8 
al3 
ol3 
0I2 


50 
48 
51 
53 
48 
47 
42 
45 
40 
38 
35 
38 
40 
33 
49 
40 
39 
41 
36 
40 
25 
34 
31 
34 
39 
22 

8.5 
31 
42 
12 
22 

6.8 
25 


12 


13 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 




Apr. 1 




3 




5 


20 


22 




24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 . 


May 1 


29 
16 





2.9 




3 


4 


5 





Date. 



May 6. 



1910. 



June 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 





Carbon- 


Bicarbon- 


Color. 


ate 
radicle 


ate 
radicle 




(CO3). 


(HCO3). 


7 


a 13 


6.3 


8 


.0 


25 


16 
14 


09.6 
oil 




2.4 


8 


04.8 


10 


7 


032 





6 


.0 


20 


8 


.0 


16 


8 


.0 


21 


6 


.0 


19 


6 


.0 


19 


6 


ol4 


5.4 


5 


04.8 


11 


8 


.0 


21 


8 


01.2 


31 


8 


.0 


26 


8 


.0 


15 


10 


.0 


24 


8 


.0 


17 


6 


.0 


19 


8 


a 6. 7 


9.0 


4 


.0 


18 




.0 
.0 


20 


6 


15 


8 


a 9.1 


16 


6 


.0 


20 


6 


.0 


20 


4 


.0 


20 


6 


.0 


16 


6 


.0 


15 


8 


.0 


19 


8 


.0 


18 


4 


.0 


20 


4 


.0 


16 


6 


.0 


15 


6 


.0 


22 


10 


.0 


17 


8 


.0 


19 


8 


.0 


16 



a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 in water at time of collection. 
YAKIMA RIVER. 
GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Yakima Eiver heads in Keechelus Lake 2,458 feet above sea level, 
near Snoqualmie and Yakima passes in the Cascade Moimtains. It 
flows in general southeastward about 150 miles, and discharges into 
the Columbia a few miles above the town of Kennewick. The upper 
river flows through heavily forested, mountainous country, about 
5,500 feet above sea level. Precipitation is abimdant, averaging 26 
inches at Clealum and increasing rapidly to over 60 inches a year at 
Keechelus Lake. As the greater part of the precipitation occurs in 
fall and winter, much of it as snow, and as midsummer precipitation 
is almost nothing, there are annually two periods of low water and 
two periods of high water. Low water occurs usually during the 
midwinter months, while snow is accumulating. Spring thaws cause 
high water, which generally reaches a maximum late in the spring and 
gives way to the low-water stage of summer. Rains late in the 
33476°— wsp 339—14 5 



64 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTOIT. 

autumn bring a second, less pronounced high-water stage, which in 
turn gives place to the low water of winter. 

In its middle and lower courses the river flows through a series of 
wide, fertile valleys that extend to the plains of the Columbia. Rain- 
fall is deficient, ranging from 10 inches at Ellensburg to 6 inches at 
Kennewick, and this part of the drainage area is practically unforested, 
except among the mountains that form the western wall of the val- 
ley and among the Wenatchee Mountains on the north. Naches 
River, Tieton River, Cowiche Creek, and Atanum Creek flow from 
the west to join the middle Yakima. Toppenish and Satus creeks 
drain the southern highlands, and several small streams, entering 
from the north near and above EUensburg, head in the Wenatchee 
Mountains and form the only important tributaries from the north 
and east sections of the drainage area. The lower Yakima is in a 
semiarid country and has no tributaries. 

The upper Yakima River valley exposes pre-Eocene schists, slates, 
serpentines, and volcanic rocks, Eocene sandstones, conglomerates, 
shales, and basalts, and in places Mocene and later basalts. Above 
EUensburg the river crosses an exposure of Miocene basalt and enters 
the later Tertiary sedimentary deposits known as the Ellensburg 
formation, and in its lower course flows across basalt and sandstone. 

N ACHES RIVER. 
GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Naches River, a tributary of Yakima River, rises in the Cascade 
Mountains, in the western part of Kittitas County, and flows south- 
eastward, discharging into Yakima River a short distance above 
North Yakima. Its total length is about 50 miles, but its head- 
waters drain a stretch of the Cascade Mountains 50 miles in extent. 
Precipitation is abundant around its headwaters, and although its 
vaUey lands are semiarid its annual discharge is equivalent to a 
depth of about 20 inches on its drainage area. A large part of the 
basin is forested with yeUow pine, red and yeUow fir, tamarack, and 
some hemlock and other conifers. 

The geologic formations exposed near the source of the river include 
large areas of Tertiary sandstones and lavas, together with some 
more recent andesite. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were coUected daily from Naches River below 
the entrance of Tieton River at the power house near the town of 
Naches from February 1 to June 30, 1910, when the station was 
discontinued. A gaging station is maintained by the United States 
Geological Survey 5 miles above Naches and below the mouth of 
Tieton River. The drainage basin above it comprises 930 square 
miles. 



COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN. 



65 



The water has a slight amount of temporary hardness but is not 
usually concentrated enough to render treatment for boiler use 
necessary. It is a calcium-carbonate water with minor proportions 
of alkalies and sulphates. As the samples were collected during 
spriQg freshets, the amount of suspended matter is probably much 
greater and the amount of dissolved matter probably less than they 
would have been throughout the year. 

The water is well suited for irrigation, the chief use to which it is 
to be put. It wiU become more unsafe as a source of municipal 
supply as the population of the drainage basin increases, and it now 
furnishes an undesirable supply to North Yakima. The water is 
treated by adding to it sodium hypochlorite in the proportion of 8 
or 10 pounds of the reagent to 1,000,000 gallons of water, but the city 
health officer states in a personal communication that the treatment 
is not always effective and that it is evidently unskiUfuUy performed. 

The determinations of the color and alkaHnity of water from 
Naches River, made daily from March 3 to June 26, 1910, show a 
gradual but irregular decrease in both qualities, but the variations 
bear no apparent relation to rainfall. Probably melting snow on the 
Cascades has the most pronounced influence, for the snow melted 
more and more rapidly as the season advanced, and alkaHnity and 
color show a more or less regularly increasing dilution. The color in 
early spring was high and caused considerable complaint among those 
who used the supply for drinking. Coagulation and rapid sand fil- 
tration followed by properly supervised addition of hypochlorite 
would decolorize the water and render it safe and satisfactory for 
municipal use. 

Mineral analyses of water from Naches River at Naches, 1910. 
[Parts per minion unless otherwise stated.] 



Date. 








6 










^X 


r2 


-S 


.2 


<s 












|3 


a 

1 


.£ ^ 






':3 







a 

'0 


a 
s 

1 


M 





c3 

CO 

«o 

CM 

%^ 


.1-1 
03 "^ 

ft 






® 
.3 

3 


'd 


From — 


To— 



to 

'd 
9 
> 

m 
m 








El 


CQ 





CQ 


t-i 





1^ 


CQ 





K 


02 


s 





u 


Feb. 1 


Feb. 


10 


5 


3 


0.60 


26 


0.10 


8.8 


2.4 


7.4 


0.0 


45 


8.6 


0.22 


0.4 


80 


11 




20 


5 


4.8 


.96 


31 


.13 


10 


2.4 


7.2 


.0 


52 


8.9 


.50 


.6 


89 


21 


Mar. 


2 


100 


84 


.84 


25 


.20 


9.4 


a2.5 


8.5 


.0 


47 


12 


Trace. 


.7 


82 


Mar. 3 




12 


20 


32 


1.60 


24 


.15 


8.8 


3.1 


5.7 


?)4.3 


37 


8.9 


Trace. 


.4 


74 


13 




22 


30 


73 


2.45 


20 


.25 


8.1 


2.7 


6.8 


bll 


22 


8.1 


Trace. 


.4 


74 


23 


Apr. 


1 


40 


37 


.92 


20 


.02 


9.5 


3.1 


7.7 


.0 


48 


3.5 


.20 


.2 


67 


Apr. 2 




11 


25 


19 


.76 


26 


.08 


9.6 


3.2 


6.9 


.0 


48 


5.8 


.00 


.4 


76 


12 




21 


60 


61 


1.02 


17 


.05 


8.4 


3.1 


7.0 


.0 


52 


3.1 


Trace. 


.5 


66 


22 


May 


1 


28 


34 


1.21 


30 


.01 


7.5 


2.2 


5.5 


.0 


44 


6.3 


Trace. 


.5 


79 


May 2 




11 
21 


"25" 


a 30 
26 


























12 


1.04 ! 32 


.02 


6.7 


2.4 


6.3 


.0 


39 


2.6 


.00 


.3 


76 


22 




31 


15 


17 


1.13 18 


.01 


6.5 


2.0 


4.5 


.0 


34 


2.5 


.00 


.3 


52 


June 1 


June 


10 


10 


6.8 


.68 1 16 


.01 


6.7 


1.9 


2.4 


.0 


31 


3.9 




.3 


59 


u 


an... 


20 
30 


10 
21 


6.0 
1.4 


.60 i 16 
. 70 1 22 


.01 
.01 






5.8 
4.3 


.0 
.0 


29 
37 






.3 
.3 


61 


21 


6.8 


2.2 


2.8 


.00 


65 


Me 


27 


29 


1.04 1 23 


.08 


8.2 


2.5 


6.1 


.0 


43 


5.9 


.08 


.4 


71 


Percenta 


ge of i 


iiihy 


drouj 


3 residue 


} 34.1 


C.2 


12.2 


3.7 


9.0 


31.4 




8.7 


.1 


.6 





ff Estimatecl , 



h Aboormal; computed to HCOg in average. 



: FejOi. 



66 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Naches River at Naches. 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar.3 


65 
30 
54 

58 


0.0 

0.7 

.0 

o2.4 


38 
46 
49 
44 
40 
45 
44 
52 
38 
40 
38 
44 
45 
45 
40 
40 
40 
41 
43 
41 
41 
46 
41 
46 


1910. 
Apr. 8 


8 

8 

8 

8 

10 

9 

10 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

10 

18 

16 

16 

14 

8 

8 

7 

8 

8 

8 


0.0 

a 9. 6 

a 19. 2 

a 16. 8 

a 21. 6 

a 38.0 

14.4 

.0 

.0 

0I2.O 

0I2.O 

a 12.0 

.0 

a 7. 2 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

04.8 

a 4. 8 

.0 

a 6.0 


44 


4 


9 . 


27 


13 


10 .. 


4 Q 


14 


22 


6 1 


15 


26 .. . . 


n 


16 


52 

24 

56 

78 

36 

16 

16 

20 

8 

8 

8 

12 

2 

6 


.0 
.0 

Trace. 
.0 

Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
04.8 
.0 


29 





17 


30 


li 


18 


May 16 


34 


20 


17 


33 


22 


18 


6 1 


23 


19 


18 


24 


20 


11 


25 


21 


30 


27 


24 


26 


28 


25 


30 


29 


26 


27 


30 


27 


55 


Apr.l 


29 


37 


2 


30 


37 


3 


June 22 


32 


4 


8 


23 


28 


5 


25 


40 


6 


8 
8 


26 


24 


7 











a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 in sample as collected. 

YAKIMA RIVER AT CLEALUM. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Clealum is situated on Yakima Eiver 6 miles above the mouth of 
Teanaway Kiver and 3 miles below the mouth of Clealum Eiver, at 
an elevation of 1,908 feet above sea level. The surrounding country 
is rough and mountainous and contains several important coal de- 
posits. The winter cHmate is severe but changeable. The annual 
precipitation, mostly snow, is about 26 inches. Floods occur in 
Yakima River late in the fall or early in the winter and late in the 
spring; the spring freshets are usually though not always the greater. 
Yakima Eiver at Clealum carries the waters of Keechelus, Kachess, 
and Clealum lakes, and its water is therefore representative of all 
the principal headwaters of the river. Storage in the lakes regulates 
the discharge of the river so that it is not so ''flashy" as it otherwise 
might be. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected by S. A. Mortland from the river 
near the left bank about 100 yards below the bridge near Clealum. 
A gaging station is maintained at the highway bridge just above 
Clealum; the drainage area above that point is 500 square miles. 

The water is soft and free from large amounts of either suspended 
or dissolved material. As it usually contains much organic matter, 
probably of vegetable origin, it may at times cause corrosion in 
boilers, but gives little trouble from scale and needs no corrective 



COLUMBIA EIVER BASIN. 67 

treatment for boiler use. Slow sand filtration would probably be 
sufficient to render it suitable for domestic use. 

The water is characterized by shght secondaiy salinity, which in- 
dicates that the predominating rock formations are sedimentary. 
Though andesiteS; basalts, and rhyoUtes, with some older schists and 
slates, predominate at the headwaters of this stream, they are suc- 
ceeded by Tertiary sandstones, shales, and basalt. The Tertiary 
materials are the most readily soluble and probably give the water 
its distinguishing characteristics. 

Both color and alkalinity are low, as shown by the accompanying 
table. The alkalinity decreased slightly because of dilution by rain 
and melted snow. 



68 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



s ^ w >> 



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COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN. 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Yakima River at Clealum. 
[Parts per million.] 



69 



Date. 


Color. 


Cafbon- 

ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- ; 

ate 

radicle 

(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
jfar 14 


4 

Trace. 
4 
4 
3 
3 

Trace. 
2 
2 

Trace. 

2 
2 
2 

2 

Trace. 

Trace. 
3 
4 


2 






2 
2 
8 
8 


0.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 2. 9 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 2. 4 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

O29.0 

a 5. 3 

a 12.0 

.0 

04.8 

a 26.0 

a 14. 9 

a 16. 3 

020.4 

.0 

0I9.7 

a 12.0 

"5.8 


34 
33 
31 
34 
30 
29 
32 
31 
36 
35 
39 
35 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
28 
31 
30 
44 
22 
12 
33 
27 


1910. 
May 5 


2 



4 

12 
8 
4 
8 
6 


0.0 

a 10. 8 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 8. 4 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

07.2 
.0 
a 15. 6 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a 4. 8 

"3.4 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a 3. 6 
,0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


28 


16 


6 


10 


18 


8 


30 


20 


9 


29 


22 . . 


10 


27 


23 


11 


12 


26 


12 


27 


27 


13 


34 


28 


14 


24 


29 


15 


20 


30 


16 


28 


Apr. 1 


17 




28 


2 


18 


8 


27 


3 


19 


32 


4 . . 


21 


4 

4 



13 


5 


23 


27 


6 


25 


24 


7 


26 


30 


8 


27 


29 


9 


28 





26 


12 


29 


33 


13 


30 




33 


14 


31 


4 




32 


15 


June 1 


30 


16 


2 


27 


17 


3 


30 


18 


12 
4.1 
24 
30 


4 







2 

8 


27 


19 


5 


28 


22 


6 


17 


23 


7 


25 


24 . . 


8 


29 


25 


7.3 

16 


9 


27 


26 


10 


28 









a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection. 

YAKIMA RIVER AT PROSSER. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Prosser is situated in western Benton County in a rich agricultural 
section of lower Yakima Valley, which, includes the Sunnyside project 
of the United States Reclamation Service. 

This arid valley is fertile where water is applied to well-drained 
tracts, but poorly drained places are "spotted'' by black alkali. 
The soil is rich and contains much potash and phosphate, and it is 
rendered very productive by irrigation. Series of Tertiary lake sedi- 
ments and vast stretches of Yakima basalt are exposed in the basin. 
Most of the tributaries of Yakima River below Clealum flow from a 
region of basaltic and tuffaceous effusives. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water from Yakima River at Prosser were collected at 
the flouring mill by Albert Smith from January 21 to June 20 and 
by Dr. D. M. Angus, county health officer, from August 20, 1910, to 
January 31, 1911. The amount of material carried in suspension 
and in solution between June 20 and August 20, 1910, has been esti- 



70 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEBS OF WASHINGTON. 

mated by interpolation in order to complete the yearly estimates of 
denudation. A gaging station is maintained at Kiona, 14 miles 
below Prosser. The drainage area at Kiona is 5,230 square miles 
and at Prosser is 5,050 square miles. The estimates of discharge 
entered in the table of analyses have been corrected for the difference 
in size of the basin. 

The water is characterized by temporary hardness and can be 
softened for boiler use by adding small amounts of lime or by pre- 
heating in open heaters; it will probably cause no trouble by corro- 
sion or foaming, though it contains much organic matter and is 
badly polluted by sewage. The writer has seen soHd particles of 
sewage in the river above the outlets of the sewers at Prosser. North 
Yakima, notwithstanding prohibi'^ive legislation, was discharging its 
untreated sewage into Yakima River in 1910, and this sewage un- 
doubtedly passed Prosser less than one day later. Investigation^ 
has recently demonstrated that much of the typhoid fever in this 
district is due to contaminated water supphes, and it is evident that 
the water of Yakima River is being grossly polluted with sewage and 
is entirely unfit for domestic use in its present state. 

Daily determinations of the color and alkahnity of the water of 
Yakima River at Prosser were made from March 13 to January 24, 
1911. Color was strong during the spring but decreased gradually 
until midwinter when the water was nearly colorless. As the water 
of Yakima River at Clealum and that of Naches River are both less 
highly colored than that of the Yakima at Prosser the latter probably 
obtains much of its color from tributaries other than the headwaters. 
The streams flowing from the Tertiary lake beds comprising the 
EUensburg formation possibly contribute some color. Sudden great 
increases of color accompanied general rainstorms— as, for example, 
early in April. 

The alkahnity of the water decreased during spring and increased 
during summer, so far as the incomplete records of conditions in 
summer indicate, and decreased again during winter. Alkalinity, 
therefore, varied inversely with stream flow. 

Coagulation and rapid sand filtration would be the most satis- 
factory treatment for this water, if it were used as a municipal supply. 

1 Lumsden, L. L., The causation and prevention of typhoid fever with special reference to conditions 
observed in Yakima County, Wash.: U. S. Pub. Health Service Pub. Health Bull. 51, 1912. 



COLUMBIA EIVEE BASIN. 



71 



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72 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Yakima River at Prosser. 
[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


1 
Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar. 13 


208 
90 
62 
62 
65 
60 
86 
86 
38 
36 
58 
32 
78 
208 
168 
172 
54 
20 
16 
80 
78 
32 
24 
36 
16 
8 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
a 17. 3 

a 7. 2 
.0 
.0 
.0 
a Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a6.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

ao.O 
a 15. 4 
a20.4 
a 14. 4 

04.8 
015.6 
.0 
.0 
a 10. 8 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a 3. 6 
.0 

a 3. 6 

.0 

021.4 

a 3. 6 

a 9. 6 

09.6 
.0 
13.2 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

08.4 

08.4 

2.4 
.0 

09.6 
.0 
.0 
.0 

07.2 
.0 

03.6 


78 
63 
65 
61 
61 
62 
38 
55 
58 
64 
58 
67 
62 
68 
69 
61 
59 
66 
68 
63 
62 
61 
42 
50 
40 
30 
23 
39 
22 
51 
49 

.2 
45 
56 
54 
56 
47 
51 
38 
39 
44 
14 
46 
37 
30 
51 
26 
50 
48 
72 
57 
40 
39 
57 
63 
30 
48 
55 
52 
38 
55 
43 


1910. 
June 21 


18 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 

16 

8 
8 
8 
8 
4 
4 
4 
2 

16 
4 
8 
8 

40 

32 
8 
8 
6 
8 
8 
7 
8 
8 
8 

12 
8 
8 
4 
8 
8 
8 
4 
6 
8 
8 
6 

4 
4 

2 
8 
8 
8 
8 
9 
6 
4 
4 

16 
12 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

:§ 

.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

.0 

:S 

.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


56 


16 


Sept. 23 


164 


17 


24 


171 


18 


26 


172 


19 


Oct. 3 


166 


20 


4 

5 

6 


164 


27 


170 


28 




29 


7 


71 


30 


8 


78 


31 


9 


69 


Apr 1 


10 


59 


2 


12 


61 


3 


13 


62 


4 


14 


150 


5 


17 


147 


6 


19 


73 


7 


20 . -. 


74 


8 


21 


75 


9 


24 


78 


10 


28 


70 


12 


Nov 21 


59 


13 


22 


56 


16 


23 


40 


18 


24 


39 


19 


28 


46 


25 


30 


49 


26 


15 
16 
17 
32 
16 
16 
22 


Dec 1 


50 


27 


3 


61 


28 


5 


57 


May 3 


6 . . .. 


61 


4 


7 


63 


5 


8 


61 


6 


9 


66 


8 


11 


62 


10 


24 
19 
16 
16 
48 
42 
22 
16 
16 
78 
30 
16 
16 
17 
78 
32 
16 
24 
90 
58 
32 
90 
54 
90 
78 
24 
98 


12 


63 


11 


13 


63 


12 


14 


67 


13 


16 


66 


20 


17 


63 


21 


19 


67 


23 


1 20 


67 


24 


22 


68 


25 


25... 


78 


30 


26 


76 


31 


27 


76 


June 1 


1911. 
Jan 4 




2 




3 


71 


6 


5 


78 


7 


6 


76 


8 


7 


76 


9 


8 


73 


11 


9 


74 


13 


10 


74 


14 


11 . : 


77 


15 


12 


74 


16 


13 


71 


17 


17 


74 


18 


21 


72 


19 


23 


73 


20 


24 


68 









o Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 when sample was collected. 

SNAKE RIVER. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Snake River flows from its source in Yellowstone National Park 
across Idaho, then northward between that State and Oregon and 
Washington through a steep canyon to Lewiston, Idaho, where it is 



COLUMBIA EIVirR BASIN. Y3 

joined by the Clearwater; it there turns sharply and flows westward 
through Washington to its confluence with the Columbia below Pasco. 
The river drains an area of 109,000 square miles. The river crosses 
the Columbia River basalt and throughout its entire lower course 
occupies a steep- walled canyon about 2,000 feet deep. According 
to Russell ^ solid rock is exposed only in the canyon waUs which in 
many places rise nearly vertically from the talus slopes at their base. 
He believed that the canyon was formerly filled with gravel and that 
the work of reopening the bed is not yet completed. The gradient 
below Lewiston is about 2.5 feet to the mile, but many rapids inter- 
rupt the smooth flow of the stream. 

The soil in the Washington part of the Snake River basin is fine 
and deep and is practically free from pebbles, and where only a sparse 
desert growth exists it is readily swept by the winds into great dunes. 
The depth and richness of the soil, however, render it eminently 
suitable for agriculture, and though the plateau has a forbidding, 
desert-Hke aspect, it is capable of producing abundant crops when it 
is properly watered. Precipitation is heavy in the mountain portion 
and is mostly snow, but in the lower valleys it amounts to only 8 or 
10 inches a year. The temperature of the central valleys ranges from 
about 100° or higher in summer to considerably below zero in winter. 

There are many sites along Snake River where immense amounts 
of power can be developed, but few have yet been utilized. Power 
plants are in operation on Snake River at American Falls, Shoshone 
Falls, and the Minidoka dam, and on Payette and Boise rivers, 
tributaries of the Snake. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected from Snake River at the Northern 
Pacific Railway bridge near Burbank from March 13, 1910, to Janu- 
ary 31, 1911, inclusive, by Albert Ellis, station master at Burbank. 
A gaging station is maintained at the same point, above which the 
drainage area is 109,000 square miles. 

The quaUty of the water is subject to considerable variation, 
according to discharge. The turbidity of a stream may be expected 
to increase with rising flood and to decrease after the first flood 
waters have passed. Dissolved matter may be expected to decrease 
with rising stage and to reach a minimum at or shortly after the max- 
imum flood stage, when the disintegrated rock material and other 
partly soluble matter that has accumulated on the drainage area 
during low water has been thoroughly leached. Thus a rise in stage 
is attended by a quick rise in turbidity with early maximum and slow 
decline and a slower decrease in dissolved material, the minimum often 

1 Russell, I. C, A reconnaissance in southeastern Washington: U. S. GeoL Survey Water-Supply Paper *, 
pp. 15, 21, 1897. 



74 QUALITY 0¥ SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

being apparent during falling stage. The analyses of Snake River 
water clearly exemplify these conditions. The first crest of the spring 
freshets occurred at about the time of the highest turbidity; after a 
slight drop another rise took place, not quite so high as the first but 
of longer duration and unaccompanied by increased turbidity. Sus- 
pended matter reached a minimum almost a month after the date of 
the first flood and during the second one; a second but less pronounced 
low value is recorded during the falhng stage in June. Maximum 
dissolved matter occurred during the first stages of the autumnal 
rise, when the first leachings of the summer accumulations of soluble 
matter were brought down the river. The seasonal variation of dis- 
solved matter is about one and a half times the minimum content. 

The water of Snake River at Burbank is usually turbid and should 
be clarified before being used for drinking or manufacturing; its aver- 
age hardness is about 70 parts per million. It would not corrode 
boilers or cause foaming under ordinary conditions of operation. If 
it were used in boilers without sedimentation it would deposit about 
IJ pounds of medium soft scale per 1,000 gallons of water injected. 
Treatment in a preheater or by sedimentation is all that is advisable 
as preliminary to its use in boilers, and unless large amounts of steam 
are generated it would probably be most economical to omit all treat- 
ment and to rely upon occasional cleaning to remove the sludge. 

The daily alkahnity, as shown by the table, varies within rather 
narrow hmits, but the color varies with great irregularity. High color 
is caused chiefly by the washing of humus, in spring from the upland 
soils and in autumn from the autumn-plowed lands of the lower parts 
of the basin. The spring maximum is the greater. The turbidity, 
color, and alkahnity indicate that coagulation and filtration would be 
advisable if the supply were purified for municipal use. 



COLUMBIA EIVER BASIN. 



75 



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76 



QUALITY or SUKFACE WATEKS OF WASHINGTON. 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Snake River at Burbank. 
[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate, 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar 20 


90 

96 

138 

106 

106 

90 

90 

56 

48 

48 

48 

56 

. 54 

50 

54 

32 

36 

36 

50 

54 

8 

10 

16 

8 

18 

8 

9 

9 

16 
16 
16 
16 
14 
15 
16 
15 
15 
15 
16 
16 
16 
16 
14 
10 
16 
16 
8 
15 
16 
13 
18 
58 
15 
15 
16 
16 
15 
10 
16 
16 
14 
24 
10 
16 
9 
8 
16 
8 
8 
10 
7 
14 
15 
16 
16 


0.0 

.0 

.0 

a 13 

.0 

0I.2 

0I.2 

al.2 

.0 

.0 

.0 

o2.4 

a4.8 

.0 

07.2 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

0I.8 

.0 

.0 

a 21 

a 9.1 

.0 

08.4 

0I6.I 

.0 

a 23 

.0 
0I2 
a 13 
.0 
.0 
a 8. 6 
a 12 
a 10 
a 6. 7 
al.2 
07.9 
a 15 
a 12 
a 14 
a 18 
all 
a 12 

a 9. 6 

a 22 

c2.4 

a 7. 2 

.0 

.0 

06.5 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a9.6 

a 2. 4 

al.2 

.0 

07.4 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

07.2 

a3.6 

a 3. 6 

a3.6 

a 7. 2 

.0 

.0 

.0 


65 
60 
66 
50 
57 
59 
57 
62 
72 
63 
71 
68 
68 
68 
62 
65 
58 
61 
61 
55 
44 
52 
58 
6.3 
24 
49 
32 

57 

12 
60 
32 
29 
51 
44 
30 
25 
21 
34 
45 
39 
27 
27 
30 
37 
36 
33 
35 
19 
46 
48 
44 
44 
36 
57 
43 
43 
57 
41 
45 
55 
56 
51 
63 
67 
15 
62 
48 
51 
52 
51 
39 
55 
55 
55 


1910. 
June 22 


16 

8 

8 

10 

9 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

24 

16 

16 

16 

8 

18 

15 

16 

16 

16 

8 

8 

8 

9 

16 

5 

8 

7 

8 

9 

8 

9 

8 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

16 

10 

8 

8 

7 

8 

8 

8 

8 

16 
16 
16 
9 
8 
8 
8 
8 
7 
8 
8 
7 
8 
8 
8 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 
7 
8 
8 
6 
4 
8 
4 


0.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 9. 6 

a 4. 8 

.0 

.0 

a25 

.0 

a2.4 

.0 

a6.0 

.0 

all 

al.2 

a6.0 

a 4. 8 

a 12.0 

.0 

a9.6 

a3.6 

07.2 

.0 

.0 

. .0 

.0 

a3.6 

a 2. 4 

a3.6 

a 6.0 

.0 

.0 

al.2 

a 6.0 

a 13 

a9.6 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 4. 8 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

a 12 

.0 

.0 

a 6.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

al.4 

.0 

.0 

06.0 

a6.0 

al4 

a 17 

.0 

.0 

a 7. 2 

.0 


57 


21 


23 


61 


23 


24 


62 


24 


25 


63 


25 


26 


60 


26 


July 1 


65 


27 


2 


70 


28 


3 


67 


30 


4 


73 


31 


5 


68 


Artr 1 


6 


73 


^ 2 ;.;... 


7 


52 


3 


8 


72 


4 


9 


78 


5 


10 


61 


7 


11 


66 


8 


14 


72 


9 


15 


73 


10 


16 


49 


11 


17 


82 


14 


18 


77 


16 


19 


85 


17 


20 


72 


21 


21... 


86 


27 - -. 


22 


61 


May 1 - - 


23 


84 


2 


24 


76 


5 


25 


76 


6 


26 


59 


7 


27 


100 


8 


28 


85 


9 


Aug. 3 


82 


10 


4 


76 


11 


5 


94 


12 


6 


92 


13 


7 


90 


14 


8 


94 


15 


9 


87 


16 .... 


10 


88 


17 


11 


87 


18 


12 


83 


19 


13 


95 


20 


14 


98 


21 


15 


92 


22 


16 


87 


23 


17 


73 


24 


18 


76 


25 


20 


98 


26 


21 


93 


27 


22 


100 


28 


23 


106 


29 


24 


93 


30 


25 


101 


31 


26. : 


102 




27 


99 


2 


28 


100 


3 


30 


77 


4 


31 


105 


5 


Sept. 1 


101 


6 


2 


91 


7 


3 


104 


8 


4 


102 


9 


5 


100 


10 


6 


101 


11 


7 


99 


12 


8 


96 


13 


9 


102 


14 


10 


89 


15 


11 


90 


16 


12 


77 


17 


13 


74 


18 


14 


109 


19 


15 


106 


20 


16 


92 


21 


17 


114 



a Abnormal; probably present as HCOa at time of QoUectiorit 



COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN. 77 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Snake River at Burhank — Continued. 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Rent 18 


4 


0.0 
.0 

a 2. 4 
.0 
.0 
.0 

03.6 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


109 

102 

101 

100 

110 

111 

111 

127 

126 

114 

118 

85 

95 

100 

98 

99 

111 

103 

99 

96 

94 

111 

104 

101 


1910. 
Nov. 30 


22 
16 
32 
40 
32 
16 
17 
16 
16 
14 
13 
54 
32 
30 
32 
32 
16 
16 
15 
16 

15 

16 

15 

16 

16 

8 

8 

8 

8 

16 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

:? 

.0 
.0 
.0 

.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


85 


19 


Dec. 1 


85 


24 


8 

16 

32 

32 

32 

32 

16 

8 

8 

24 

22 

15 

10 

8 

8 

7 

8 

20 

10 

8 

7 

12 

14 

6 

8 

6 

7 

16 

14 

12 

8 

7 

8 

8 

8 

16 

16 

18 

18 

14 

17 

22 


8 


87 


25 


11 


87 


28 


12 


88 


30 -. . 


13 


87 


Oct 1 


14 


90 


2 


15 


96 


3 


16 


98 


4 


17... 


102 


5 . . 


19 


102 


9 


20 


96 


11 


21 


95 


12 


22 


93 


14 


23 


101 


15 . ... 


25 


101 


17 


26 


101 


21 


27 


98 


22 


28 


101 


23 


31 


100 


24 


1911. 
Jan. 1 




25 




26 


102 


27 


2 


105 


31 


3 


104 


Nov. 2 


105 

106 

104 

107 

99 

100 

100 

71 

79 

111 

62 

88 

89 

74 

79 

87 

87 

90 

82 


4 


104 


3 


6 


119 


4 


6 


100 


6 


7 


109 


6 . . 


8 


101 


7 


9 


104 


10 


12 


101 


14 


14 


99 


16 


17 


6 

8 

5 

8 

10 

10 

6 

12 


105 


20 . .. 


18 


102 


21 


19 


106 


22 


22 


103 


23 


23 


105 


24 


25 


106 


25 


26 


107 


26 


29 


109 


27 


30 


107 


28 


31 


12 


105 


29.. 











a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection. 
KLICKITAT BIVEB. 

GENERAL FEATURES OF DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Klickitat River rises on the eastern slopes of the Cascade Range 
in southern Washington, flows in general southward, and joins 
Columbia River at Lyle. At the headwaters of the main stream 
is Goat Rocks, more than 8,000 feet above sea level. Mount Adams, 
whose glaciers feed the river through several tributary streams, 
reaches an altitude of 12,307 feet, but the elevation of Columbia 
River at Lyle is only 75 feet. As Klickitat River is about 105 miles 
long, its average slope is 80.2 feet per mile. The average slope per 
mile in the lower 70 miles is 44.1 feet, and the river has not yet eroded 
its bed to base level at its mouth. The stream is confined in a narrow 
box canyon during much of its course down this steep juvenile valley. 



78 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 

Though three-quarters of the drainage basin is covered mostly 
by yellow pine and red and yellow fir, only about 4 per cent is 
included in national forests. 

Volcanic rocks, especially basalt, predominate, and extensive 
exposures of columnar or massive basalts overlain by a shallow soil 
composed of the disintegrated country rock appear in the river 
canyon. The upper portion of the basin contains many level valleys, 
some of which are swampy during the wet season. As the porous 
rocks and soil allow ready percolation, stream flow is somewhat 
regulated by the addition of seepage waters during the dry season. 
Several soda springs in the drainage basin bear excellent local reputa- 
tions, but no authoritative analyses of them are available. 

The river is of some agricultural importance in its upper course, 
but irrigable lands along the lower river are not extensive, and the 
chief value of the stream is for power development. The results 
of a careful study of the system in respect to its value for power 
production have been pubhshed by the Geological Survey.^ 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Daily samples of water for this investigation were taken from 
Klickitat River at the gaging station of the United States Geological 
Survey near KHckitat, 14 miles above the mouth of the river, by 
Mrs. M. A. Young. At this point the swift river is confined by steep 
rocky banks and its bed is gravel and cobblestones. The drainage 
area above the gaging station is 1,090 square miles. 

The quality of the water strongly reflects the lithologic conditions 
in the drainage basin. The calcium-carbonate water is characterized 
by primary alkalinity; the quantity of the sulphate radicle varies 
widely because of the admixture in varying proportions of the waters 
of the tributaries flowing over different types of rock. There is 
no apparent relation between discharge and dissolved soHds or 
discharge and the sulphate content. 

The water is excellent for use in boilers or for irrigation, but its 
suspended matter should be removed before it is allowed to pass 
through turbines, as otherwise the casings will be badly abraded. 

The alkalinity and color of the water of Klickitat River were 
determined daily from April 15 to June 6, 1910. As the water is 
of little importance except for power and irrigation these determi- 
nations were omitted after June 6, and the tabulated results are 
presented without comment. 

1 Stevens, J. C, Water powers of tlie Cascade Range, pt. 1: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 253, 
1910. 



COLUMBIA EIVEE BASIN. 



79 



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80 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Klickitat River at Klickitat. 
[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(COa). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCOs). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(COa). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Apr.l5 


8 
6 
7 
7 
120 

16 
8 

16 
7 
8 


o 2.4 

olO 

a 10 

C26 
.0 

a 16 

ol6 

a 20 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

olO 
O6.0 


C14 


33 
27 
17 

34 


1910. 
May 17 


8 
6 
7 

48 
24 
8 
8 
8 
8 
7 
8 


o7.2 

a 16 

.0 

.0 

.0 


1Q 


^ 16 


18. 


18 


18 


19. 


32 
34 
43 
'85 


19 


20 


22 


21 


23 


22 


24 


9.8 


23. 


.0 
oil 

.0 

.0 

.0 

08.9 

.0 

.0 

.0 

O7.0 

6.0 

07.2 

06.O 


3.^ 


25 


24 


26 


May 5 


36 
36 
34 
16 
35 
29 
15 
18 
31 
16 


25. 


30 


6 


28. 


33 


7 


29. 


38 


8 


72 
8 
8 
9 
9 
8 


30 


27 


9 


31 


9 

4 

8 
8 
4 

8 


34 


10 


June 1 


31 


11 


2 . 


35 


12 


3 . 


32 


13 


4 


34 


14 


5 


35 


15 


8 

8 


6. . 


32 


16 


.0 


32 











a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection. 
COLUMBIA RIVER AT NORTHPORT. . 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Northport is a mining town in the northern part of Stevens County, 
on Columbia Eiver about 10 miles below its entrance into the United 
States. Clark Fork empties into the Columbia just north of the in- 
ternational boundary, but no large tributaries join the river between 
the boundary and Northport. Analyses of the water collected at this 
point therefore represent the quality of the Columbia as it enters the 
United States. At Northport Columbia E-iver flows through a nar- 
row valley, walled in by steep, broken hills, but the stream itself is 
broad and navigable. Sewage from upstream settlements pollute the 
water somewhat, but mineral pollution from mines and similar 
sources is not apparent. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of water were collected daily from Columbia River at the 
ferry at Northport by F. G. Janneck from January 22, 1910, to Jan- 
uary 31, 1911, inclusive. A gaging station has been estabUshed at 
this point by the United States Weather Bureau, but readings are 
made only in summer and the accuracy of those reported is ques- 
tionable. 

The water is soft and good for most industrial operations and may 
be used without treatment, though a small reduction in the already 
low content of scale-forming ingredients might be effected by pre- 
heating or treating it cold with a little milk of lime. 



COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN. 81 

Determinations of alkalinity, which were made daily from March 
14 to May 21, 1910, inclusive, show frequent occurrence of normal 
carbonates, but the water as sampled probably contained only bicar- 
bonate, part of which was converted into monocarbonate by the with- 
drawal of half-bound carbon dioxide from the water as a result of 
organic reactions. The total alkalinity did not vary with regularity 
during this period, which was one of rising stage, and the daily fluc- 
tuations were sometimes large. 



82 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



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83 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Columbia River at Northport. 

[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCOj). 


1910. 
Mar 14 


4 
6 
3 
2 
3 
6 
8 
4 
7 
6 
7 
5 
4 
5 
8 
6 
6 
4 
4 
10 
6 


2 
1 
2 

1 





0.0 
a 4. 3 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
a Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
al.2 
.0 

020 

17 

ol5 

all 
09.1 

012 

a 17 

ol4 


82 
82 
83 
86 
81 
75 
75 
78 
77 
81 
78 
88 
80 
76 
77 
80 
82 
83 
61 
78 
81 
81 
71 
41 
59 
61 
64 
61 
63 
51 
51 


1910. 
Apr. 20 


2 

1 


6 

2 
4 
2 
2 
2 
4 
2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 
24 
2 


05.5 
oi4 
fll3 
a 19 
a 13 
ol4 
a 17 
a6.0 
.0 
a5.3 
a 2. 9 
a 5. 3 
a 15 
09.6 
.0 
13.2 
a 7. 2 
ol5 

.0 

a 19 

17.2 

a4.8 

.0 

ol.O 

a5.3 

a 3.1 

a7.7 

.0 

.0 

.0 


57 


15 


21 


44 


16 


22 


57 


17 


23 

24 


44 


18.. - 


60 


23 


25 


51 


24 


26 


42 


26 


27 


59 


27 


1 28 


74 


28 


29 


59 


30 


May 1 


68 


31 


2 


65 


Apr. 1 


3 


40 


2 


4 


62 


3 


5 


74 


4 


6 


46 


5 


7. 


61 


6.. 


8 


41 


7 


9 


68 


8 


10 


30 


9 


11 


60 


10 


12 


63 


11 


13 


73 


12.. 


14 


71 


13.. 


15 


62 


14 . 


17 


68 


15 


18 


54 


16 


19 


74 


17..-- 


20 


69 


18 


21 


72 


19 











a Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection. 

COLUMBIA RIVEB AT PASCO. 

GENEEAL FEATURES. 

Pasco is in the southern part of Franklin County, on Columbia 
River about 4 miles above the mouth of Snake River and 6 miles 
below the mouth of Yakima River. It is surroimded by rolling 
sandy prairie whose soil is deep and rich but devoid of vegetation 
except sagebrush and kindred desert plants because of deficient rain- 
fall. Several irrigation projects have been estabHshed in the vicinity, 
and these, together with the strategic location of the city opposite 
the mouth of Yakima Valley, at the entrance to the great central 
plains of Washington, on a navigable portion of Columbia River at 
the junction of the Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railway and the 
WaUa Walla branch and main line of the Northern Pacific Railway, 
and near a branch of the Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation 
Co.'s fine, give Pasco great potential importance. 

The large tributaries of Columbia River between Northport and 
Pasco are, from the east and south, Colville River and Spokane River; 
from the west and north, Kettle, Sanpoil, Okanogan, Methow, Chelan, 
Entiat, Wenatchee, and Yakima rivers. Though these streams and 
smaller ones add large amounts of water to the river, they change its 



84 QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

chemical character very httle from that mdicated by analyses of 
river water from Northport. (See p. 82.) The waters of Okanogan, 
WenatcheC; Yakima, and Spokane rivers also were studied and analyses 
of them are given on pages 59, 62, 68 and 71, and 56, respectively. 

CHAEACTEE OF THE WATER. 

Samples were collected daily from the Columbia just above Pasco 
from February 1 to April 21, 1910, by William Norton, through the 
kindness of the Pasco Light & Water Co., and by Harry Dickerman 
from May 2, 1910, to January 31, 1911, inclusive. All the samples 
were collected from the intake of the pump used to force water into 
the city reservoir. The entrance to the intake is not screened to 
remove suspended matter, and is located in the main channel above 
the bottom of the river. The estimates of discharge in the table of 
analyses were made by F. F. Henshaw, district engineer at Portland, 
Oreg., by adding the discharge of the Yakima at Kiona or Kichland. 
While not accurate to the highest degree, they are suflB.ciently so for 
all purposes of this report. The drainage area above Pasco is 103,000 
square miles. 

Columbia Eiver at this point is used to supply water to Pasco and 
Kennewick and all the railroads. The water is moderately hard and 
forms in boilers some scale, which is soft, however, and easily re- 
moved. Though the water might be corrosive under some conditions 
of service, the addition of lime and soda ash in very smaU quantities 
would correct that tendency for the feed water of boilers. 

Columbia Eiver annually carries by Pasco 11.5 million tons of 
dissolved mineral matter, which is equivalent to a denudation of 111 
tons per square mile of drainage area. This is almost identical with 
the amount estimated by Dole and Stabler ^ as being removed by 
like processes from the drainage area of Mssissippi Eiver. If the 
average specific gravity of rock is assumed to be 2.6, it wiU take 
1,700 years to remove 1 inch from the drainage area above Pasco by 
solution alone, while 1 inch would be removed by combined solution 
and suspension of eroded material in 1,600 years. The denudation 
in several thousand square miles of the area is, however, practically 
nothing; the greatest activity is in the basins along the east slope of 
the Cascade Mountains. 

The daily variations in total alkalinity from March 13 to Jime 12, 
1910, are insignificant. The daily variations of color, though greater 
than those of alkalinity, are not great. The water was highly colored 
during March, but was clear during the rest of the period. 

1 Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Denudation: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 231, p. 91, 
1909. 



COLUMBIA EIVER BASIl?-. 



85 



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86 



QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Columbia River at Pasco. 
[Parts per million.] 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCOs). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Mar. 13 


45 

49 

45 

46 

24 

36 

16 

26 

20 

4 

6 

6 

6 

6 

8 

6 

4 

8 

6 

10 

6 

6 

6 

6 


a Trace. 
0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

ol3 

015 
.0 

a 15 

ol4 

ol7 
.0 
.0 

a 16 

ol3 

a 9.1 

.0 

05.5 

.0 

.0 


68 
73 
71 
73 
70 
71 
66 
62 
66 
36 
37 
65 
32 
30 
37 
61 
64 
26 
37 
37 
76 
66 
70 
65 


1910. 
May 21 


10 

16 
4 
4 

16 
4 



50 



6 
4 

12 
8 
8 
4 
4 


20 

8 


0.0 
.0 
.0 

Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 

Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


65 


14 


22 


65 


15 


23 


66 


16 


24 


63 


21 


25 


62 


23 


26 


63 


25 


27 


68 


28 


28 


60 


30 


29 


66 


May 4 


30 


66 


^ 6 


31 


69 


7 


■ June 1 


67 


8 


2 


67 


9 


3 


76 


10 


4 


76 


11 


5 


67 


12 


6 


68 


13 


7 


65 


14 


8 


69 


16 


9 


66 


17 


10 


67 


18 


11 


68 


19 


12 


67 


20 











o Abnormal; probably present as HCO3 at time of collection. 
COLUMBIA RIVER AT CASCADE LOCKS. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Cascade Locks are situated on the Oregon side of Columbia River, 
nearly opposite Stevenson, Wash., 35 miles below The Dalles, at a 
place where the river flows in a deep, narrow gorge cut through the 
basalts of the Cascade Mountains and over a basalt ledge in a series 
of rapids known as the Cascades. The river at this place is now 
almost at grade, and at low water the river at The Dalles is only 
45 feet above mean sea level. Cascade Locks, therefore, mark the 
lowest place on Columbia Eiver unaffected by tides, and consequently 
the lowest place where representative samples of water and trust- 
worthy discharge measurements could be obtained, though the cur- 
rent much nearer the mouth is strong enough to prevent the water 
from becoming saline. 

The largest tributaries of Columbia River between Pasco and Cas- 
cade Locks are, from the west and north, Khckitat River and White 
Salmon River, and from the east and south, Snake, Walla Walla, 
Umatilla, Willow, John Day, Deschutes, and Hood rivers. These 
streams contribute more than 35 per cent of the discharge at Cascade 
Locks. Analyses of the water of Khckitat and Snake rivers are given 
on pages 79 and 75, respectively. The waters of Umatilla, John Day, 
and Deschutes rivers and their tributaries were studied in 1911 and 
1912 in cooperation with the State engineer of Oregon. 



COLXJIMBIA EIVER BASIN. 87 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER. 

Samples of the water of Columbia Kiver were collected daily at 
Cascade Locks from March 13 to December 31, 1910, and from 
August 1, 1911, to August 14, 1912, in the swift current above the 
rapids. The collections were made by Val W. Tompkins, inspector 
at Cascade Locks, through the courtesy of the district engineer of the 
Engineer Corps, United States Army. Samples could not be collected 
between January 3 andJanuary 18, 1912, because there was no reason- 
ably safe place at which containers could be lowered to flo^^ing water 
through the ice. The estimates of discharge included in the table of 
analyses have been computed from those obtained at the gaging station 
at The Dalles by correcting them for the difference in drainage area. 
The basin of Columbia River above The Dalles covers 237,000 square 
miles and above Cascade Locks only 2,600 square miles more. 



^ 



88 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



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QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



The water is suitable for most industrial uses, as it is low in min- 
eral content, belongs to the calcium-carbonate type, and is character- 
ized by temporary hardness and by low permanent hardness. Its 
content of scale-forming ingredients might be decreased somewhat by 
preheating or by adding small amounts of lime, but that treatment is 
unnecessary, because the scale which would be deposited is small in 
amount, soft, and easily removable from boilers. The water might 
cause corrosion under some conditions, but trouble from that cause 
would be sUght. 

The water is excellent for irrigation, for which a large amount of it 
will probably be used along the river above The Dalles on large areas 
of arid land which can be made very productive if they are suppUed 
with water. It will be practicable to pump the water to these lands 
as soon as cheap summer power is developed at such places as Celilo, 
on the Columbia, or the falls on the upper Deschutes. 

Columbia River is more highly mineralized at Cascade Locks than 
at Pasco, and the differences in character involve increases in propor- 
tion of sihca, alkahes, and chlorides and decreases in proportion of 
alkaline earths and bicarbonates. Most of these changes can be ex- 
plained by the influence of Snake River, for Umatilla River and John 
Day River, though more highly mineralized than Columbia River, dis- 
charge to it relatively small amounts. The increase in content of 
sihca between Pasco and Cascade Locks, which is not proportionate 
to the other changes, is probably due to the introduction of larger 
amoimts of this substance by aU tributaries, because those entering 
below Pasco are all highly siliceous. The changes in mineral content 
between Pasco and Cascade Locks and the chemical composition of 
the water of Snake River are summarized in the following table: 



Average quality of the water of Columbia River at Pasco and at Cascade Lochs and of Snake 

River at Burbank. 

[Parts per million.] 



Columbia 

River at 

Pasco, 1910. 



Columbia 

River at 

Cascade 

Locks, 1910. 



Columbia 

River at 

Cascade 

Locks, 

1911-12. 



Snake 
River at 
Btu-bank, 

1910. 



Suspended matter 

Silica (SiOg; 

Iron(Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) 

Chlorine (CI) 

Dissolved solids 



6.7 
7.7 
.04 
18 
4.5 
6.0 
.0 
73 
11 



83 



52 
13 

.04 
16 
4.2 
7.1 
.0 
67 
13 

.43 
2.0 
89 



40 
14 

17" 
3. 
8. 

69' 
12 

3! 

97 



.06 

9 
9 




52 
19 

.05 
19 
5.6 
14 

.0 
83 
21 

.53 
8.1 
131 



The water of the lower Columbia is mixed drainage from a very 
extensive basin, the upper part of which contains large amounts of 
Paleozoic and older sediments, now more or less completely metamor- 



COLUMBIA BIVER BASIN. 



91 



phosed, and the lower chiefly basalts and other lavas. The water of 
Columbia River at Northport exhibits secondary salinity. The 
water of the river at Pasco Ues near the border between secondary 
saline and primary alkaline water. Columbia River at Cascade Locks 
is also in the border class, but is more nearly in the class of secondary 
saline waters, for the average of all the analyses shows it to have a 
slight excess of strong acids over alkalies, though it had very slight 
primary alkalinity in 1911-12. The effect of the addition of primary 
alkaline waters in Washington and Oregon is to destroy the secondary 
salinity of the water of Colimabia River at Cascade Locks, but not to 
give it pronounced primary alkalinity. 

The values of sodium and potassium in the accompanying analysis 
of water of Columbia River at Mayger, Oreg., about 30 miles above 
the mouth, are evidently erroneous, as the excess of potassium over 
sodium content is entirely abnormal for river waters of North America. 
The average potassimn content of seven composite samples from the 
same source, each of which represents one month's water, is reported 
in a private communication from the director of the Oregon Agricul- 
tural College experiment station as 0.97 part per million, which is in 
accord with the writer's determinations on water from Cascade Locks. 
If sodium is corrected to 6.5 and potassium to 1.6 parts per million, 
the analysis indicates that the water of Columbia River at Mayger is 
characterized by primary alkalinity. This is chiefly the result of the 
addition of the primary alkaline waters of Willamette River and 
Lewis River, which drain regions where volcanic rocks predominate 

Analysis of water of Columbia River at Mayger, Oreg., in August, 1909. (^ 



Percentage 
of anhy- 
drous 
residue. 



Silica (Si02) 

Oxide of iron and alumina (AlaOa+FeaOs) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium (Na) 

Potassium (K) 

Ammonium radicle (NEU) 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) & 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (Cl) 

Phosphate radicle (PO4) 

Total solids at 180° C 




4.6 

4.2 

16.8 

4.8 

7.7 

7.9 

.8 

C31.8 

10.6 

10.6 

.2 



a Analysis by B. Pilkington: Oregon Agricultural College Experiment Station Bull. 112, 1912. 
fc Computed from reported CO3. 
c Computed as CO3. 

Determinations of color and alkalinity of the water of Columbia 
River at Cascade Locks, Oreg., were made daily from March 15 to 
December 30, 1910, inclusive, when samphng was temporarily dis- 
continued. All carbonates were probably present as the bicarbonate 
radicle when the samples were collected, as reactions before analysis 
doubtless convert part of the bicarbonate alkalinity to normal car- 



92 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



bonate alkalinity. Such change explains the difference between the 
amount of normal carbonates reported for the daily samples and that 
for the 10-day composite samples. The total alkahnity, which is 
correct, did not vary greatly and it was always sufficient to react 
with the quantity of coagulant or disinfectant that might be intro- 
duced in connection with filtration. 

Early in the spring the water was noticeably colored; during the 
rest of the year it was nearly colorless, but only once did colorimetric 
determinations show a complete absence of any tint. 



Color and alkalinity of the water of Columbia River at Cascade Locks. 

[Parts per million.] 



Date. 



Mar. 



1910. 



Apr. 



May 



9. 
10. 
11. 
13. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 



Color. 



43 

54 
40 
40 
38 
36 
44 
54 
54 
70 
96 
90 
62 
88 
32 
32 
28 
32 
26 
20 
12 

8 
24 
20 
20 
32 
16 
24 
16 
20 
14 
16 
12 
10 

8 
14 

8 
10 
12 
16 

8 
12 
12 
16 
12 
14 
12 
12 



Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CDs). 



0.0 
.0 
a7.2 
a 14. 
.0 
.0 
a4.3 
.0 
.0 
.0 
a 1.2 
.0 
a Trace. 
.0 
a Trace. 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
a9.1 
a2.4 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
- .0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
a 14 
a 12 
a 20 
ol2 
oil 
a 14 
o25 
a 12 
a 25 
.0 
o8.2 
ol4 
a6.7 
all 



Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 



56 
73 
65 
60 
62 
65 
62 
66 
62 
63 
68 
62 
67 
60 
62 
57 
65 
62 
59 
63 
68 
65 
65 
66 
67 
58 
68 
63 
65 
69 
67 
72 
73 



64 
57 



57 
57 
54 



52 
50 
26 
28 
17 
33 
42 
32 
18 
40 
9. 
59 
41 
27 
42 
35 



Date. 



May 16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
30. 
31. 
June 1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 



1910. 



July 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
20. 
21. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
29. 

4. 

6. 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
16. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 





Carbon- 


Bicarbon- 


Color, 


ate 
radicle 


ate 
radicle 




(CO3). 


(HCO3). 


8 


013 


28 


16 


.0 


70 


16 


a 17 


23 


14 


.0 


71 


6 


a 29 


15 


10 


a 20 


32 


8 


020 


22 


12 


a 12 


50 


12 


.0 


69 


6 


a 12 


42 


6 


07.4 


46 


10 


.0 


68 


8 


.0 


56 


6 


.0 


57 


6 


a Trace. 


58 


6 


04.8 


54 


8 


.0 


61 


8 


a7.2 


52 


8 


.0 


54 


14 


.0 


62 


10 


.0 


57 


8 


.0 


60 


10 


a2.4 


63 


8 


al.2 


65 


30 


.0 


62 


8 


.0 


63 


8 


.0 


64 


8 


.0 


62 


8 


.0 


64 


8 


al.2 


64 


12 


.0 


62 


14 


0I.2 


61 


16 


.0 


63 


8 


al.2 


63 


10 


.0 


65 


16 


.0 


67 


8 


.0 


68 


7 


.0 


70 


6 


.0 


69 


8 


.0 


76 


8 


.0 


68 


8 


03.6 


63 


8 


.0 


72 


11 


.0 


67 


8 


07.2 


52 


10 


0I.2 


67 


8 


.0 


67 


8 


0I.2 


67 


10 


.0 


67 


7 


07.2 


56 


15 


.0 


41 


17 


.0 


40 


8 


.0 


67 


8 


.0 


69 


8 


.0 


70 


8 


.0 


69 


4 


.0 


68 



a Abnormal; probably present as HGO3 at time of collection. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF KIVER WATERS. 93 

Color and alkalinity of the water of Columbia River at Cascade Locks — Continued. 



Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Date. 


Color. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(CO3). 


Bicarbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


1910. 
Tnlv 2Q 


7 
8 
8 

16 
9 
9 
8 
8 
7 
8 
8 
8 

48 
8 
7 
7 
8 
8 
8 

8 
8 
8 
8 
7 
7 
8 
7 
8 
4 
6 
4 
4 
4 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
4 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

04.8 

.0 

01.2 

.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 

a 16 

a 20 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

07.2 

.0 

09.6 

19.4 

a 12 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


71 
69 
70 
71 
71 
72 
65 
69 
68 
71 
71 
69 
70 
66 
66 
68 
68 
65 
68 
68 
68 
J8 
41 
71 
71 


1910. 
Oct. 14 


4 
6 

20 
8 
6 
6 
6 
8 
6 
4 
6 
6 
4 
6 

10 
6 
4 
8 
4 
2 
6 
2 
4 
4 
2 
3 
2 

16 
9 

10 
8 

12 

16 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 

10 
4 
6 
8 
9 
8 


0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
,0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
. .0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 


70 


30 


15 


69 


31 


16 


72 


Aue. 2 


18 


70 


3 


19 


71 


4 


20 


71 


5 


22 


69 


6 


24 


72 


7 


25 


72 


8 


26 


68 


9 


27 


71 


10 


31 


76 


11 


Nov. 2 


78 


12 


4 


76 


13 


5 


79 


14 


6 


73 


15 


7 


74 


16 


8 


78 


17 ... 


10 


67 


22 


11 


68 


23 


12 


72 


30 


21 


63 


31 


22 


65 


Sept. 1 


23 


66 


2 


25 


71 


3 


26 


63 


6 


74 
76 
77 
73 
76 
73 
60 
74 
57 
65 
61 
77 
74 
84 
78 
77 
78 
67 
70 
70 


28 


62 


7 


29 


76 


8 


Dec. 1 


68 


10 


4 


67 


12 


5 


67 


13 


6 


70 


14 


7 


73 


16 


9 


63 


17 


10 


66 


23 


11 


65 


24 


15 


62 


Oct. 1 


16 


68 


3.. 


17 


68 


7 


19 


68 


8 


22 


74 


9 


23 


73 


10 


24 


62 


11 


29 


76 


12 


30 


82 


13 











a Abnormal; probably present as HCOs at time of collection. 
AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVER WATERS. 

The accompanying table summarizes the chemical composition of 
the river waters that were examined. Their low mineral content is 
noteworthy. The muddiest and the most strongly concentrated 
water, that of Snake River near its mouth, after the stream has 
traversed an arid plain, contains only 131 parts per miUion of dis- 
solved and 52 parts of suspended matter. The drainage of the Coast, 
Olympic, and Cascade ranges, as indicated by analyses of water from 
Skagit, Cedar, Green, Chehahs, Wynoochee, KHckitat, Naches, 
Yakima, and Wenatchee rivers, and Wood Creek, carries less than 
90 parts per milUon of dissolved solids and several mountain streams 
frequently carry as Httle as 50 parts. (See ^g. 1, p. 94.) 

The mineral content of the water of Columbia River is shghtly in- 
creased between Pasco and Cascade Locks, chiefly by the stronger 



94 



QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 



influent, Snake Eiver. That the mineral content and composition 
at Pasco are practically the same as at Northport is due to lack of 
appreciable drainage from the semiarid section of the Columbia 
plains. 




FiGUEE 1. — Diagram sliowing relative amounts of dissolved and suspended material carried by rivers 

of Washington. 

All the waters belong to the calcium-carbonate type — that is, the 
alkaline earths, calcium and magnesium, and carbonates or bicar- 
bonates predominate. The content of sulphate is not large and 
chlorine is very low. Sihca, though not present in very great quan- 
tity, constitutes, of course, a large proportion of the mineral matter 
in such dilute solutions. Iron is generally so low as to be almost 
inappreciable. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RIVER WATERS. 



95 















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33476°— wsp 339—14- 



96 QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE RIVERS. 

The streams furnish good water for use in boilers. If the small 
amount of suspended matter usually carried is removed by brief 
sedimentation the waters are capable of forming in boilers only one- 
fourth to three-fourths pound of scale per 1^000 gallons of water con- 
sumed. The high percentage of silica is Hkely to make the scale 
rather hard, but not excessively so, and the total quantity of incrus- 
tants is too small to justify artificial softening of the waters. Certain 
organic reagents, such as logwood or tannin, are helpful in remedying 
the trouble caused by sihca, but as those reagents are injurious for 
other reasons their use ordinarily is not recommended. Foaming 
would not occur if the customary blowing off is practiced. The 
free carbon dioxide and the organic matter might possibly cause 
sHght corrosion under some conditions, but that trouble can readily 
be obviated by treatment of the waters with a little milk of Hme. The 
general use of boiler compounds or other reagents is not advisable. 

All the river waters that were examined are entirely suitable for 
irrigation and will not noticeably increase the alkali of the soil except 
on land that entirely lacks drainage. Analyses of the waters from 
the west slope of the Cascades indicate that the soils in many parts 
of that region are deficient in Hme, and this conclusion is corroborated 
by the results of published analyses of the soils. Analyses of the 
intermountain and eastern waters, however, give evidence that the 
soils there are not deficient in lime and their marked fertihty accords 
with that evidence. 

The surface waters of Washington are much like those of New 
England in respect to their availability for domestic use. They carry 
relatively small quantities of somewhat coarse suspended matter. 
They range from 20 to 70 parts per milhon in total hardness expressed 
as CaCOg, and may therefore be classed as soft. Many streams are 
tinted by organic matter derived from peat, swamps, and general 
decaying vegetation, but they are not so highly tinged as the well- 
known ''green-tea" waters of New England, though the proportion 
of color in some is great enough to render advisable removal of it by 
means of a coagulant during filtration. None of those tested con- 
tains enough iron or other mineral substance to be perceptible to 
taste or objectionable for domestic use. The data in the accompany- 
ing table indicate the characteristics pertaining to general use of the 
waters. The average, maximum, and minimum colors and alkalini- 
ties are based on the daily estimates. The reports of turbidity and 
dissolved sohds probably do not represent the maximum range of 
those ingredients because they are based on the analyses of 10-day 
composite samples. The hardness of each water has been computed 
from the average chemical composition by means of the formula 

Total hardness as CaC03 = 2.5Ca-f4.lMg. 



ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE EIVEKS. 



97 



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> 


m 

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o 












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as 
> 


is 
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98 



QUALITY OF SUEFACE WATEES OF WASHINGTON. 



DEXUDATIOX. 

The materiaL carried in suspension by a river represents loose soil 
washed in and particles of rock detached from the sides and bottom 
of the stream bed. Though the removal effected by this washing of 
the soil is great, it is small in Washington compared with the effects 
of direct solution and chemical reaction, which are equivalent to an 
annual removal of 0.0003 to more than 0.001 inch of solid rock 
material from the entire area. 

The first table below shows the amount of denudation by suspen- 
sion and solution in Washington rivers and the number of years 
required for the removal of 1 inch of rock material from each drainage 
basin. The second table shows the rate of denudation in the eastern 
and western Cascade regions, the Columbia plains region, and the 
whole Columbia River basin. Tons per day of material, as reported 
in the tables of analyses in the preceding text, has been computed 
by multiplying together the content of suspended or dissolved 
matter, the mean discharge during the corresponding period, and 
the factor 0.00270. The columns of the following table headed 
* 'Material removed from drainage area in 1 year" express the 
amount of material carried through the cross section at each station 
during the year in which samples of water were collected, and the 
denudation in milhonths of an inch has been computed by dividing 
tons per square mile per annum by 0.1917. The last column is the 
reciprocal of the sum of denudation in milhonths of an inch of sus- 
pended and dissolved matter.^ 

Denudation hy streams of Washington. 









Material removed from drainage area in 1 year. 






















Years 




















Drainage 






Dis- 


Sus- 


Dis- 


Sus- 


re- 
quired 
to re- 
move 
1 inch 


River. 


Locality. 


(square 
miles). 






solved 


pended 


solved 


pended 






Dissolved 


Suspended 


(tons 


(tons 


(mil- 


(mil- 






(tons). 


(tons). 


per 


per 


lionths 


lionths 












square 


square 


of an 


of an 














mile). 


mile). 


inch). 


inch). 




Cedar 


Eavensdale... 


149 


34,855 


2,960 


234 


19.8 


1,221 


103 


760 


Columbia.. 


Cascade Locks 
(1910). 


239,600 


21,510,000 


14, 022, 000 


89.8 


58.5 


468 


305 


1,300 


Do .... 


Cascade Locks 
(1911-12). 


239, 600 


17,000,000 


7,000,000 


7L0 


29.2 


370 


152 


1,900 


Do 


Pasco 


103,000 


11,454,000 


1, 208, 200 


111 


11.7 


579 


61 


1,600 


Klickitat. . . 


Klickitat 


1,090 


169, 100 


36, 920 


155 


33.9 


809 


177 


1,000 


Skagit..... 


Sedro Wool- 
ley. 
Burbank 


2,930 


756, 100 


363,550 


258 


124 


1,346 


647 


500 


Snake 


109,000 


6, 824, 000 


5,049.000 


62.6 


46.3 


327 


242 


1,800 


Spokane . . . 


Spokane 


4,000 


404, 900 


45,900 


101 


11.5 


537 


60 


1,700 


Wenatcliee. 


Cashmere 


1,200 


189, 8:30 


55,400 


158 


46.2 


825 


241 


940 


Yakima 


Clealum 


500 


108, 460 


18,336 


217 


36.7 


1,132 


191 


820 


Do 


Prosser 


5,050 


492, 730 


120, 193 


97.6 


23.8 


509 


124 


1,600 



1 Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Denudation: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 234, 
p. 80, 1909. 



INFLUENCE OF NATUEAL FEATURES. 

Denudation by grand divisions. 



99 



Hiver. 



Locality. 



Years 
required 
to remove 

linch. 



East slopes of Cascades: 

Wenatchee 

Yakima 

Do 

West slopes of Cascades: 

Cedar 

Skagit 

East tributaries of Columbia Liver: 

Spokane 

Snake 

Entire basin of Columbia River: 

Columbia 

Snake 

Columbia 



Cashmere 

Clealum 

Prosser 

Ravensdale 

Sedro Woolley 

Spokane 

B urban k 

Pasco 

Burbank 

Cascade Locks (1910) 



940 

820 

1,600 

760 
500 

1,700 
1,800 

1,600 
1,800 
1,300 



Denudation is progressing rapidly in the Cascade Mountains. The 
rate in the basin of Columbia River is slightly less than the rate on 
the north Atlantic coast/ and the eastern tributaries of the Columbia 
are much less active than the western tributaries. The eastern 
tributaries are denuding their drainage areas at about the same rate 
as the rivers entering the Gulf of Mexico from the west. 

INFLUENCE OF NATURAL FEATURES. 

PRECIPITATION. 

Surface waters from arid regions are more concentrated than those 
from humid regions, though the latter have greater erosive action and 
consequently carry away greater quantities of dissolved matter in a 
given period. This is clearly exemplified by the waters of Washing- 
ton. The average mineral content of the water of Skagit River, 
which drains a region of large precipitation, is only 48 parts per mil- 
lion, while the water of Snake River, which drains an arid region, con- 
tains 131 parts per million of dissolved soUds. The other rivers 
examined show similar relationship between rainfall and mineral con- 
tent. Accumulation of soluble salts takes place where rainfall is very 
shght because the run-off can not remove the soluble products of 
rock decomposition as fast as they are formed. 

WIND-BORNE MATERIAL. 

The quantities of the soluble products carried by many streams of 
Washington are so large that the influence of minor features, such as 
nearness to the ocean, is not noticeable. In the arid regions only the 
effects of differences of precipitation and Hthologic characteristics are 
readily discernible. The quantities of sodium and chlorine in surface 
waters near the ocean are increased by ^ind-borne oceanic salt, 



1 Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, op. cit., p. So. 



100 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATERS OF WASHINGTON. 

wMch falls with the rain, and the farther inland the rainfall the less 
is the amount of this '^cyclic salt." The effect of this addition is not 
apparent in Washington, except possibly in streams in the coastal 
basin, ia those flowing from the west slopes of the Cascades, and in 
the upland waters of the east slopes of the Cascades. In those waters 
there appears to be relationship between chlorine content and distance 
from the ocean, but it is not simple and no definite indication of 
isochlors by means of the available analyses is possible. The daily 
variations in chlorine are frequently as great as regional differences, 
Windstorms in some places, as at Cascade Locks on the Columbia, 
increase the content of suspended taatter chiefly by blowing silt and 
sand into the streams. The quantity and relative coarseness of the 
suspended matter in Snake River at Burbank indicate that similar 
action takes place along that stream. 

FORE STATION. 

Forests undoubtedly inhibit the removal of suspended matter by 
rivers, but they also aid rock disintegration and soil loosening, and 
thus by their own chemical work and by the greater seepage from 
areas covered by them increase the amount of dissolved matter in 
drainage from them. These influences are, however, so involved and 
information in relation to them is so meager that the effects of forests 
on mineral content of Washington waters can not now be determined. 

CHARACTER OF THE ROCKS. 

The character of the rocks in the drainage basins undoubtedly 
has great determinative influence on the chemical composition of 
the waters, though available information regarding the distinctive 
lithologic characteristics of the basins above the sampling stations 
in Washington is so meager that generalizations are rather incon- 
clusive and may even be misleading. In respect to reaction three 
classes of water have been differentiated in the accompanying table, 
in accordance with the classi&cation outlined on pages 33-35. Solu- 
tions in which strong acids exceed alkalies in reacting weight are 
called secondary saline waters and belong in Class III; those in 
which alkalies exceed the strong acids are called primary alkaline 
waters and belong in Class I; and one that is jcharacterized by neither 
primary alkalinity nor secondary salinity is placed in Class II. The 
small numerical differences between the reacting weights of the acid 
and basic radicles are obliterated by assuming that the ratio of Na to 
K is 4 and by assigning the remaining difference, due mostly to error 
of analysis, to bicarbonates. 

The waters of three streams whose basins comprise mostly effusive 
rocks exhibit notable primary alkalinity. None of the streams has 
very marked secondary saline characteristics, though half of them. 



CONCLUSION. 



101 



possess secondary saline reaction and some of them drain basins 
that contain extensive areas of sedimentary formations. Primary 
salinity and secondary alkalinity are highest, the former ranging 
from 13 to 31 per cent and the latter from 63 to 83 per cent. As 
the large rivers, however, carry contributions of mineral matter 
from all kinds of rock — effusive, intrusive, metamorphic, and sedi- 
mentary — their waters are mixed in type, and analyses of them do 
not afford bases for very definite conclusions. 

An extremely well marked effect of lithologic character is the low 
mineral content of the surface waters of Washington because of the 
great predominance of igneous rocks and materials formed by their 
mechanical disintegration. The waters even from the arid section 
of the State do not approach in mineral content the drainage of 
some humid regions where soluble sedimentary rocks are abundant* 

Geochemical classification of surface waters of Washington. 



River. 



Locality. 



Pri- 
mary 

sa- 
linity. 


Sec- 
ondary 

sa- 
linity. 


Pri- 
mary 
alka- 
linity. 


Sec- 
ondary 

alka- 
linity. 


Class. 


25.2 


0.7 


0.0 


74.1 


Ill 


34.8 
13.3 
16.5 


1.0 

4.9 

.0 


.0 
.0 
.1 


64.2 
81.8 
83.4 


III 

III 

I 


20.0 


3.5 


.0 


76.5 


III 


22.6 


.0 


1.6 


75.8 


I 


25.2 
20.8 
15.5 
20.0 


.0 
.0 
.0 
.2 


n.5 

10.2 

13.9 

.0 


63.3 
69.0 
70.6 
79.8 


I 

I 

I 

III 


22.1 


7.1 


.0 


70.8 


III 


29.5 


4.3 


.0 


66.2 


TTT 


19.9 


.0 


1.0 


79.1 


I 


27.6 


1.6 


.0 


70.8 


m 


22.3 
23.0 


.0 
.0 


6.3 
2.4 


71.4 
74.6 


I 
I 


22.9 


3.3 


.0 


73.8 


III 


31.2 


.0 


.0 


68.8 


II 



Lithologic character of 
basin. 



Cedar 

Chehalis 

Columbia 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Green 

Klickitat 

Naches 

Okanogan 

Skagit 

Snake 

Spokane 

Wenatchee... 

Wood (Creek) 
Wynoochee.. 

Yakima 

Do 



Ravensdale 

Centralia 

Northport 

Pasco 

Cascade Locks 

(1910). 
Cascade Locks 

(1911-12). 

Hot Springs 

Klickitat 

Naches 

Okanogan 

Sedro Woolley ... 

Burbank 

Spokane 

Cashmere 

Everett 

Montesano 

Clealum 

Prosser 



Metamorphic and effu- 
sive rocks. 

Sedimentary rocks. 

Metamorphic rocks, etc. 

Metamorphic, effusive, 
and sedimentary rocks. 
Do. 

Do. 

Andesite. 

Basalt. 

Effusive rocks. 

Metamorphic and effu- 
sive rocks. 

Metamorphic, sedimen- 
tary, and intrusive 
rocks. 

Sediments at h e a d - 
waters, effusives in 
lower course. 

Granitic and basaltic 
rocks. 

Metamorphic and sedi- 
mentary; some intru- 
sive rocks. 

Glacial debris. 

Intrusive and sedimen- 
tary rocks. 

Mostly effusive rocks, 
some sedimentary. 

Effusive and later sedi- 
mentary rocks. 



CONCLUSION. 



The river waters of Washington are low in mineral content and 
are good for general industrial use or for irrigation. What little 
suspended matter they carry is coarse and readily removable. The 
color of some renders it advisable to purify them by coagulation and 
rapid sand filtration rather than by slow sand filtration. 



102 QUALITY OF SURFACE WATEES OF WASHi:S^GTON. 

Columbia River enters the State as a secondary saline water, 
but it receives large additions of alkaline water and finally carries 
a water of mixed type with a slight tendency toward primary alka- 
linity. 

The Cascade Mountain region is being eroded and dissolved at 
the rate of 1 inch in 500 to 900 years, and the rate of denudation 
near the summits is nearly equal on both sides of the divide. The 
rate in the lower altitudes is greater on the western than on the 
eastern slope and greater in the Cascade intermountain region than 
in the Columbia plains. The rate in the basin of Columbia River is 
about 1 inch in 1,300 years, according to the analyses made in 1910. 
As denudation is not uniform throughout the basin, but is most 
pronounced in the watercourses themselves, the rivers are deepen- 
ing and widening their canyons and valleys. 

No lakes are known whose waters are economically important as 
sources of commercial salts. Waters from the coulee lakes of Wash- 
ington contain a greater proportion of common salt than the lake 
waters of southeastern Oregon and are therefore less valuable for 
recovery of soda. 



INDEX. 



A. Page. 

Acknowledgments to those aiding S-9, 39 

Agriculture, development of 15-16 

Alkalies, effect of, in boiler water 21 

Alkalinity, determination of 31, 32 

range of 97 

See also 'particular stream basins. 

Aluminum sulphate, coagulation bj'^ 27 

Analysis, methods of 31 

results of, interpretation of 31-35 

See also particular stream basins. 

Angus, D. M., work of 69 

Area, extent of 9 

Arveson, John, work of 47 

B. 

Barium carbonate, softening by ^ . . 29-30 

Bevan, E. J., and Cross, C. F., on paper mak- 
ing 23 

Bicarbonates, effect of, in boiler water 21 

Big Bend region, lakes in 12 

Bleaching, water for, quality of 21 

Breweries, water for, quality of 22-23 

Burbank, Snake River at. See Snake River. 

C. 

Calcium, scale due to 21 

Calcium hydrochlorite, sterilization by 28 

Calkins, F. C, on soils of Washington 13 

Carbon dioxide, source and effect of 17-18 

Cascade Locks. See Columbia River at Cas- 
cade Locks. 

Cascade Range, denudation on 99, 102 

description of 9-10 

geology of 13 

Cashmere, Wenatchee River at. See Wenat- 
chee River. 

Cedar River, basin of 40-42, 102 

basin of, denudation in 44, 99 

water of 42-45, 97 

analyses of 44, 95 

color and alkalinity of 43, 45, 97, 102 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 44, 98 

Centralia. See Chehalis River at. 

Chehalis River, basin of 4&-47, 102 

See aZso Chehalis River at Centralia. 

Chehalis River at Centralia, water of 47-51, 95, 97 

water of, analyses of 49, 95 

color and alkalinity of 47-48, 50, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 49, 98 

Chelan, Lake, description of 12 

Chemical composition of stream waters, data 

on 93 

See also particular streams. 
Chlorine, occurrence of, in natural waters .... 17, 

18-19, 100 



Page. 

Classification of boiler water 31 

Clealum. (See Yakima River at Clealum. 

Climate, description of 11, 13-15 

Coagulation, use of, in filtration 26-27 

Coast, climate of 14 

Color, determinations of 31 

range of 96-97 

<See also particular stream basins. 

Columbia River, basin of 10-11, 52-54, 80, 83, 102 

basin of, denudation in. . . 84, 85, 88, 88-89, 99-102 

water of 102 

water power in 54 

See also particular tributaries; Columbia 
River at particular places. 
Columbia River at Cascade Locks, description 

of 86 

water of 87-93, 95, 97 

analyses of 88, 89, 90 

color and alkalinity of 91-93, 97 

geochemical classification of 88-89, 98 

solids carried by 102 

Columbia River at Mayger, Oreg., water of, 

analyses of 91 

Columbia River at Northport, description of. . 80 

water of 80-83, 97 

analyses of 82, 95 

color and alkalinity of 83, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 82, 98 

Columbia R iver at Pasco, description of 83 

water of 84-85, 97 

analyses of 85, 90, 95 

color and alkaluiity of 84, 85, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 85, 98 

Copper sulphate, sterilization by 28-29 

Corcoran, J. M., work of 45 

Corrosion, cause and prevention of 19-20 

measure of 20, 32 

Crescent Lake, repute of 12 

Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J., on paper mak- 
ing 23 

D. 
Denudation, character and amount of 98-100 

See also particular stream basins. 

Dickerman, Harry, work of 84 

Dissolved solids, amount of 98 

range of 97 

Dole, R. B., on softening 30-31 

work of 8 

Drainage, description of 8 (PL II), 10-12 

Dyeing works, water for, quality of 24 

E. 

Economic features, description of 15-lT 

Ellis, Albert, work of 73 

103 



104 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Entiat Alountains, description of 60 

Everett, Wood Creek near. See Wood Creek. 

F. 

Fick, E. P., work of 8 

Filters, types of 25 

Filtration, methods of 25-28 

Floods, occurrence of 12, 36, 41, 63, 66, 74 

Foaming, causes of 21-22 

effect of softening on 30 

Forests, distribution of 11 

influence of 101 

G. 

Geochemical classification of waters 33-35 

Geochemical interpretation of waters 102 

Geology, description of 12-13, 35-36, 

41, 45, 47, 54-55, 57, 60, 64, 67, 69, 78, 102 

influence of, on waters 101-102 

See also particular stream basins. 

Green River, basin of 45, 102 

water of 45-46, 97 

analyses of 46,95 

geochemical classification of 46, 98 

solids carried by 102 

H. 

Henshaw, F. F., work of 9 

Hot Springs, Green River at. See Green River. 

I. 

Industrial interpretation of water, formulas 

for 31-33 

Industries, development of 16-17 

Iron, precipitation of 26 

Irrigation, practice of 16 

waters for, alkalinity of 32 

classification of 33 

Isochlors, definition and use of 17 

J. 
Janneck, F. G,, work of 80 

K. 

Klickitat River, basin of 77-78, 102 

basin of, denudation in 79, 99 

water of 78-80, 97 

analyses of 79, 95 

alkalinity and color of 78, 80, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 79,98 

L. 

Lakes, description of 12, 103 

See also particular lakes. 

Landes, Henry, aid of 9 

Landsburg, George, work of 42 

Landslides, occurrence of 12 

Laundries, water for, quality of 7, 24 

Leavenworth, water supply of 60 

Lime, softening by 29-30, 32 

Lingle, A. C, work of 55 

Lumbering, effect of, on streams 17 

M. 

McManus, W. R., work of CO 

Magnesium, scale due to 21 

Manufacturing, development of 16-17 



Page. 
Map showing drainage and location of sam- 
pling stations 8 

showing natural features 7 

Mayger, Oreg., Columbia River at, water of, 

analysis of 91 

Meat packing, water for 25 

Montesano, Wynoochee River near. See 
Wynoochee River. 

Mortland, S. A., work of 66 

Mount Rainier, description of 10 

N. 

Naches River, basin of 64, 102 

water of 64-66,97 

analysisof 65,95 

color and alkalinity of 65, 66, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 65, 98 

Natural features, description of 9-15 

influence of 100-102 

location of 7 (PI. I) 

Natural waters, constituents of 17-18 

uses of 18-25 

See also particular uses. 
Northport. See Columbia River at North- 
port. 
Norton, William, work of 84 

O. 

Okanogan Highlands, geology of 12 

location of 10, 11 

Okanogan River, basin of f7,102 

water of 58-59, 97 

analyses of 59,95 

color and alkalinity of 59, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 59, 98 

Olympic Moimtains, description of 10 

geology of 12-13 

lakes in 12 

Ozone, sterilization by 29 

P. 

Palmer, Chase, on classification of waters 33-35 

Paper mills, water for, quality of 23 

Pasco. See Columbia River at Pasco. 

Permutite, softening by 30 

Population, statistics of 15 

Precipitation. See Rainfall. 

Prosser. See Yakima River at Prosser. 

Puget Soimd, basin of, climate in 14, 15 

nature of 10 

rocks of, geology of 13 

Purification of water 25-31 

See also Filtration; Softening; Steriliza- 
tion. 

R. 

Rainfall, amount of 11 

13-15, 36, 41, 47-48, 53-54, 55, 63, 66 

influence of 100 

Rapid sand filtration, description of 26-28 

Ravensdale, Cedar River at. See Cedar River. 
Rocks. See Geology. 

S. 
Sampling stations, list of 8 

location of 8 (PL 11) 

Samples, collection of, dates of 8 

Sand filtration, description of 25-28 

Scale, formation of 20-21, 32 



INDEX. 



105 



Page. 

Seattle, description of 41-42 

water supply of 41 

Sedro Woolley, Skagit River at. See Skagit 
River. 

Skagit River, basin of 35-36, 102 

basin of, denudation in 37, 38, 99 

water of 36-39, 97, 100 

analyses of 38,95 

color and alkalinity o* 37, 39, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 38, 98 

Slow sand filtration, description of 25-26 

Smith, Albert, work of 69 

Snake River, basin of 72-73, 102 

basin of, denudation in 75, 99 

canyon of 10, 72-73 

water of 73-77, 97, 100 

analyses of 75,90,95 

color and alkalinity of 74, 76-77, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 75, 98 

Soap, loss of, in hard water 7, 24, 32 

Soda, softening by 29-30 

Soda ash, effect ol, in boilers 21 

softening by 29, 80, 32 

Softening of water, effect of, on foaming 21 

processes of 29-31 

Soils, character of 13 

Solids. See Dissolved solids; Suspended 
solids. 

Spokane, climate at 14-15 

Spokane River, basin of 54-55, 102 

basin of, denudation in 56, 99 

water of 55-57, 97 

analyses of 56,95 

color and alkalinity of 57, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 56, 98 

Stabler, Herman, on corrosion 20 

on reaction coefficients 34 

on water analysis 31-32 

Sterilization, processes of 28-29 

Stevens, J. C, work of 9 

Streams, basins of, denudation in 98-100 

economic value of 96-97, 102 

water of, composition of 93-94 

See also particular streams. 

Sulphates, scale due to 21 

Suspended solids, chart showing 98 

T. 

Tanning, water for 25 

Taylor, McClintock, work of 8 

Temperature, data on 11, 13-15 

Tompkins, V. W., work of 87 

Topography, description of 9-10 

Tiurbidity, range of 97 

U. 

Ultra-violet rays, sterilization by 29 

Uses of water 18-25 

See also particular uses. 



V. 

Page. 

Vegetation, distribution of 11 

W. 

Washington, cooperation of 7 

natural features of 9-15 

Water, analyses of, error from 7 

analyses of, method of making 31 

See also Analyses. 

samples of, systematic collection of 7, 31 

Water power, existence of 54 

Waters, boiler, amount of 18 

qualifications of 7, 19-22 

supply of 96 

Water, domestic, qualifications of 7, 18-19 

supply of 96 

Waters, industrial, qualifications of 7, 22-25 

See also particular industries. 

Waters, irrigation, supply of 96 

Waters, natural. See Natural waters. 

Wenatchee River, basin of 60, 102 

basin of, denudation in 61, 62, 99 

water of 60-63, 97 

analyses of 62, 95 

color and alkalinity of 61, 63, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 62, 98 

Whipple, G. C. , on soap and water 24 

Winds, character of 15 

material borne by 100 

Wood Creek, basin of 39, 102 

water of 39-40,97 

analyses of 40, 95 

solids carried by 40, 98 

Vs'oods, E. J., work of 36 

Wool scouring, water for 24 

Wynoochee River, basin of 51-52, 102 

water of 52, 97 

analyses of 52, 95 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by. . . ; 52, 9& 

Y. 

Yakima River, basin of 63-64, 66, 69, 102 

basin of, denudation in 68, 71, 99^ 

pollution of 70 

See also particular tributaries; Yakima 
River at Clealum: Yakima River 
at Prosser. 

Yakima River at Clealum, description of 66 

water of 66-69,97 

analyses of 68, 95 

color and alkalinity of 69, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 68, 98 

Yakima River at Prosser, description of 69 

water of 69-72, 97 

analyses of 71, 95 

color and alkalinity of 70, 72, 97 

geochemical classification of 102 

solids carried by 71, 98- 

Young, Mrs. M. A., work of 7& 



O 






Wi. 



